IB Psychology Paper 1

Brain Plasticity

Brain structure changes with experience (e.g., dendritic branching).

Maguire et al. (2000)

Conducted a study on London taxi drivers, showing increased hippocampal volume due to spatial navigation experience. The study used an MRI machine to scan the brains of subjects, and was used to obtain the data on how experience affects brain structure and function.

HM Case Study

A famous case in psychology demonstrating the effects of anterograde amnesia after the removal of tissue from the hippocampus. He had a condition where his medial temporal lobes were removed. He was left with dense Anterograde Amnesia – the failure to store NEW memories.

Oxytocin

Hormone responsible for social bonding.

Amygdala

Part of brain responsible for fear and emotional memory.

Hippocampus

Part of brain responsible for memory transfer.

Hypothalamus

Part of brain responsible for emotion, hunger, and circadian rhythm.

Basal Ganglia

Part of brain responsible for habit formation.

Nucleus accumbens

Part of brain responsible for motivation and addiction

Seratonin

Neurotransmitter in the brain that affects emotions and feelings. Regulates mood, sleep, appetite. Low levels effect well-being of a person

Crockett et Al (2010)

A study investigating the role of serotonin in moral decision-making and behavior, showing how neurotransmitter levels can influence ethical judgments. After taking the drug, they were given series of dilemmas one being “the trolly problem”. Citalopram affected the solutions people made for the dilemmas compared to the people who took the placebo and found that those with increased serotonin levels were more likely to make practical choices.

Romero Et Al (2014)

In this study, dogs were placed in a room with their owner and another dog. Dogs were then sprayed with oxytocin. Dogs sprayed with oxytocin exhibited higher affiliation with their owner vs the un sprayed other dog. The study highlighted the effects of oxytocin on social bonding, demonstrating how this hormone can enhance feelings of attachment and connection between dogs and their owners.

Bouchard and McGue (1981)

A study examining the heritability of intelligence by analyzing the IQ scores of twins raised together and apart, indicating significant genetic influences on intelligence. Twins were most likely to be of similar IQ when they were seperated. The findings suggested a strong genetic component to intelligence, with correlations in IQ scores being higher among identical twins compared to fraternal twins.

Harlow’s (1958)

This experiment demonstrated the importance of caregiving and attachment in social and cognitive development. It involved rhesus monkeys raised with surrogate mothers, showing that they preferred comfort over food, highlighting the significance of emotional bonds. Showed that we are evolutionary dependent on maternal protection. The study revealed that infant monkeys would choose a soft, comforting surrogate mother over a wire mother that provided food, emphasizing the role of emotional comfort in attachment.

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

A study in support of the Multi-Store memory mode, investigating the serial position effect in memory, showing that participants recalled items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle. This research highlighted distinct memory processes for different positions in a list, contributing to our understanding of short-term and long-term memory.

Conrad and Hull (1964)

A study investigating the nature of acoustic coding in short-term memory. It revealed that people often confuse similar-sounding letters when recalling them, suggesting that sound plays a significant role in how we encode information in our short-term memory. Supporting the working memory model, which was made as a criticism of the multi-store memory model. The findings demonstrated that short-term memory relies more on auditory information than visual cues, influencing how we remember and retrieve information.

Multi-Store Memory Model

A theoretical framework that explains how information is processed in memory, consisting of three main components: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Information flows sequentially through these stages, with specific mechanisms for encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Working Memory Model

A cognitive model that describes the processes involved in the temporary storage and manipulation of information. It includes components such as the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer, emphasizing the multitasking capabilities of short-term memory.

Anderson and Pichert (1978)

A study examining the effects of schema on memory recall. Participants read a story and were later asked to recall it from different perspectives, demonstrating that prior knowledge and expectations can influence memory retrieval.

Schema Theory

A cognitive theory that proposes that all knowledge is organized into units called schemas, which help individuals process and interpret new information based on prior experiences and knowledge. Created by Jean Piaget. Theory emphasizes how certain pre-conceptions influence attention, interpretation, and memory, guiding the way new information is understood and integrated.

Ajzen and Fishbein (1973)

The Thepry of Reasoned Action was expanded into the The Theory of Planned Behavior. This theory introduced a third factor of behavioral intention: perceived behavioral control. TPB provided an explanation for situations when: the behavior is positive, the subjective norms do not prevent the person from carrying out that behavior, and the person does not think they are able to carry out the behavior/action.

Thinking

Analysis → Synthesis → Synthesis → Categorization

Theory of Planned Behavior

A psychological framework that predicts individual behavioral intentions based on attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. It extends the Theory of Reasoned Action by incorporating the influence of perceived control over the behavior. This theory is used to understand decision-making processes and the likelihood of behavior execution.

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

A study demonstrating how the phrasing of questions can influence eyewitness testimony by altering perceptions of speed and memory recall. Asked people to estimate the speed vehicles were going after a car accident, using different verbs with varying intensity like 'hit', 'smashed', or ‘contacted’ in the questions. Verbs with the least intensity had on average the lowest estimated speeds, and high intensity words had high predicted speeds.

Cognitive Dissonance

A psychological theory that explains the discomfort individuals feel when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes, leading them to seek consistency by changing their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making processes, allowing individuals to make judgments quickly and efficiently. However, they can sometimes lead to biases or errors in reasoning.

Huber, Payne, and Puto (1982)

A study exploring how the presentation of options influences consumer choice, suggesting that the format can significantly affect decision-making processes. Used wine as an example, where a very cheap option and a very expensive option were used as decoys to make the middle option more attractive. Assymetric dominance helps this middle option appear more desirable

Flashbulb Memory

A vivid, detailed snapshot of a significant event, often recalled with high emotional intensity. These memories are typically formed during surprising or consequential experiences.

Sharote Et Al (2007)

A study examining the effects of emotions on the accuracy of memory recall, highlighting how intense emotions can enhance the vividness but not necessarily the accuracy of memories associated with significant events. Studied those who were alive during 9/11, study found that the proximity to the 9/11 attacks correlated with stronger activation of the amygdala and the creation of flashbulb memories. This suggests that a closer, more personal experience may be crucial in engaging the neural mechanisms that produce vivid, detailed flashbulb memories. Also calls into question the reliability of flashbulb memories as they can be influenced by emotions and external factors.

Rosser Et Al (2007)

A study exploring the impact of video games on cognitive performance, specifically how different types of video games can enhance spatial awareness and multitasking capabilities. Surgeons who played at least 3 hours of video games a week made on average less mistakes during surgey compared to surgeons who did not.

Carrier Et Al (2015)

Study that explored the relationship between technology use and empathy, specifically focusing on adolescents and the potential decline in empathy as technology-based communication increases. They developed a "virtual empathy scale" to assess the connection between internet usage and empathy, finding that although adolescents can show empathy online, its level may decrease with more technology use. This research suggests that heavy reliance on technology for communication may lead to diminished face-to-face empathy among adolescents, raising concerns about the emotional impact of online interactions.

Cohen Et Al (1996)

Attempted to analyze deep culture in South, testing southern men’s “Culture of Honor”. The study investigated how perceived threats to one's honor can influence aggressive behavior and responses in men from the Southern United States. It highlighted the cultural significance of honor in shaping social interactions and conflict resolution. Northern men were more likely to be amused in comparison

Etic and Emic

Two approaches to studying cultures, where first refers to an external, objective viewpoint and other refers to an insider, subjective perspective. Studies regarding cultural dimensions are done as one of these two approaches.

Power Distance Index

The measure of how much a society is willing to accept or expect power to be distributed. Nations that have a higher score are more likely to tolerate inequalities, and are hierarchical. Societies with low score are more likely to protest inequalities and their social structures tend to be less rigid.

Malcolm Gladwell and Cockpit Culture Theory

In 1997, a Korean aircraft crashed, killing 228 people. Korean airlines were experiencing an unusually high crash rate at the time, having 16 aircrafts crash. The loss rate for Korean aircrafts were 17 times higher than similar airlines. Malcolm Gladwell blames these trends on elements of Korean culture itself, specifically the countries high PDI. Countries with higher PDI’s tend to have less communication, and the PDI of flight crews tend to be even higher than a countries average. Malcolm Gladwell proposed that high Power Distance Index (PDI) in Korean culture contributed to poor communication within cockpit crews, leading to aviation disasters. He argued that this cultural trait hindered assertiveness among crew members, adversely impacting safety.

Social Cognitive Theory

Theory proposed by Bandura that suggests people learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling, and finally motivation, emphasizing the importance of social influence in learning.

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)

Experiment that demonstrated children's behavior modeling through observation of adults interacting with a Bobo doll. Children acted aggresively towards the Bobo doll when they saw adult figures act violently towards it: children were more likely to emulate the adult of their gender. This experiment illustrates how children learn social behaviors through observational learning, reinforcing Bandura's theory of social cognition.

Social Identity Theory

A theory proposed by Henri Tajfel that explains how individuals derive their identity from their membership in social groups, which influences their behavior and attitudes towards in-group and out-group members.

Duncan (1976)

Study that investigated the role of race in the perception of aggressive behavior. It found that participants were more likely to interpret ambiguous actions as aggressive if the individual was Black, highlighting the impact of racial stereotypes on social cognition. Supports Social Identity Theory by demonstrating how social context and group membership can shape perceptions of behavior.

Tajfel Et Al (1971)

Pioneered Social Identity Theory by studying the minimal group paradigm, demonstrating that even arbitrary distinctions can lead to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. Boys in the UK in different groups exhibited favoritism towards their own group, even when membership was randomly assigned, confirming the theory's relevance in understanding social behavior.

Buchan Et Al (2011)

Aimed to see if identification with a global culture could motivate cooperation in the context of a global collective. Results showed that social identification with a global community vs. a local or national identity can affect sharing behavior with regard to global public good. This occurred without an expectation regarding how much other participants were contributing.

Shah et al (2015)

Studied how acculturation may contribute to obesity. BMI(body mass index) was studied in two different groups, one group of migrants who worked in the UAE and another who did not. Asian male migrant workers workers in the UAE had a higher BMI compared to those in their same culture who do not work in the UAE. The more time spent in the UAE = greater distance between BMI’s of the two groups, shows the differences that new environments can have on cultures who are adapting to a new environment.