Islamic Political, Religious, and Legal Terms: Wazir, Diwan, Imam, Sufism, Fiqh, and Crusades

da'i

someone who gives da'wa

wazir

chief minister, head of civilian bureaucracy

ex. Yahya al-Barmaki, the wazir of Harun al-rashid

diwan

a central finance department

diwan al-kharaj

land-tax bureau

bayt al-mal

treasury

diwan al-barid

post-office and intelligence bureau

mazalim

special courts for the oppressed/abused

'ilm

knowledge, especially religious knowledge

alim or ulama

religious scholar

qadi

judge,magistrate

madinat al-salam

"city of peace" Baghdad - name of the new Abbasid capital

Samarra

Abbasid capital where the mercenary army was stationed

the battle of Dandanqan 1040

the battle where the Saljuqs defeated the Ghaznavids

Battle of Manzikert 1071

the Saljuqs defeat the Byzantines

Battle of Hattin 1187

Salah al-din defeats the crusaders and recovers Jerusalem

Crusader Kingdoms in the first crusade

County of Edessa, Principality of Antioch, County of Tripoli, Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem

fourth crusade

latin kingdom of constantinople (1204-1263) and byzantine emperors in nicaea

Fatima al zahra

daughter of the Prophet Muhammad, wife of ali, and mother of hassan and husayn. known as the ideal woman

Ja'far al Sadiq

the sixth imam in Shia islam, a revered spiritual and academic figure

Ibadiyya

branch of Khawarij; spread Islam in North Africa

Shi'a

The second largest branch of islam, whose followers believe leadership after prophet muhammad belonged to his cousin and son in law, ali ibn abi talib, and his descendants (imams)

Ghulat

extremist beliefs within the Shi'a

Zaydiyya

also known as Fiver Shi'ism, a branch of shia islam named after Zayd ibn Ali, a great-grandson of the prophet muhammad

Imamiyya / Ithna ashari / Twelver Shi'a

the largest branch of shia islam, believing in twelve divinely appointed, infallible imams that descended from the prophet muhammad, with the final one being al-mahdi

Imam in sunni islam

primarily respected community leader and prayer leader in a mosque, guiding prayers, giving sermons, and offering religious/community counsel. its a title that is earned through islamic knowledge

Imam in Shia Islam

a divinely appointed, infallible spiritual and political leader, a successor to prophet muhammed or ahlul bayt

nass

The designation of an infallible (never wrong) imam by a previous infallible imam

ashura

commemorates the maryrdom of Imam Hussein (the grandson of the prophet) at karbala, observed as a day of intense mourning

Ghadir al-Khumm

commemorates the prophet declaring ali ibn abi talib his successor

Hasan al Basri

a prominent early Islamic Scholar, theologian, preacher and judge in Basra, Iraq, considered to be the father of Sufism

Rabi'a Basri

an early muslim female poet from basra, Iraq, considered to be the first female saint of Sufism

Al-Hallaj

mystic, revolutionary writer and pious teacher of Sufism, most famous for his apparent, but disputed, self-proclaimed divinity, his poetry, and for his torture and crucification for heresy in Baghdad in 922 AD

he was also known for saying "ana al haq" or "i am the truth" , which later led to his execution

al- ghazali

a persian theologian, philosopher, jurist, and mystic that was known as "proof of Islam" or "hujjat al islam" for playing a big role in integrating Sufism with Shariah

Shaykh

a highly respected spiritual guide and master who is authorized to teach and initiate disciples into a sufi order (tariqa)

Sufi lodges

ribat (north africa), khanaqa (in Iraq), Zawiya (in Arabic speaking area), Tekke (in turkish areas)

places for housing, worship, and teaching Sufi disciples

Tariqa

a specific sufi mystical order or spiritual path within islam

To guide adherents from the outer laws (Sharia) to inner mystical knowledge (Haqiqa).

Wali

a "friend of god", a saint

Silsila

the spiritual lineage or chain of transmission of mystical teachings "spiritual genealogy" where one sufi master transfers his khilafat to his khalifa or spiritual descendant

Hadith

saying or action attributed to the prophet

isnad

the chain of narrators linking a report (hadith) back to its source, crucial for verifying authenticity

Sharia

body of Islamic law that is derived from primary sources like the quran and Sunnah, and hadiths

fiqh

jurisprudence, the understanding and application of islamic law (sharia)

usul al fiqh

"roots of fiqh"; methodology of jurisprudence

Faqih or fuqaha

jurisprudant, a person responsible for interpreting fiqh sharia laws

ra'y

personal opinion or judgement

qiyas

analogical reasoning in which the teachings of the hadith are compared and contrasted with those of the quran

ijma'

consensus of legal scholars or the same agreement for fiqh

sunna

An Islamic model for living, based on the life and teachings of Muhammad

ahl al sunna wa al jama'a

People of the (Prophet's) Sunna and of the Community

madhab

school of law

malik ibn anas

Founder of the Maliki school of Islamic law. known as the "imam of Medina" was born, lived his entire life, and was buried in medina

Abu Hanifa

born and raised in kufa iraq, he was the founder of hanafi law

al-shafi'i

founder of shafii sunni school of law, baghdad was where he transformed from a student of Malik into a major legal theorist, fustat is where he dictated his major legal works like al risala and kitab al umm, and later passed away there

Ahmad ibn hanbal

founder of the hanbali school of law, the term "marv" indicates his family origin or connection to marv or modern day turkenistan. he spent most of his life in baghdad where he became a prominent mufti (legal expert), he died in baghdad as well

Shafi

dominant in east africa, yemen, indonesia, malaysia and singapore

Qur'an, hadith, 'ijma, qiyas -rejected ra'y

maliki

dominant in north africa

quran hadith, 'ijma, qiyas, urf (local custom)

Hanafi

started in Kufa, Iraq

Quran sound hadith, ijma, qiyas

Hanbali

primarily taught in Baghdad, iraq

quran, only sound hadith - rejected 'ijma,qiyas,ra'y

Bukhari

born in Uzbekistan, compiled the collection of hadiths called Sahih al Bukhari

Muslim

Hajaj Ibn Muslim was from the city of Nishapur, iran and compiled a collection of hadiths called Sahih Muslim

Hunayn Ibn Ishaq

- Christian scholar

- translated Galen's medical works into Arabic

- made Baghdad a center for the study and practice of medicine

Ibn Sina

a persion polymath, commonly known in the west as Avicenna and renowned as the "prince of Physicians", was a prominent physician, philosopher, and astronomer. Known for his monumental medical encyclopedia, The Canon of Medicine

Abu Bakr al-Razi

also known as Rhazes, was a Persian physician, philosopher, and pharmacist

Famous for developing alcohol as a dsinfectant, distinguishing smallpox from measles

Al khawarizmi

Muslim scholar who invented Algebra; also borrowed the numbers 0-9 from Hindu scholars; these numbers were later passed down to Europeans, known as "Arabic numerals". the word algorithm is derived from his name

Jundishapur

an ancient Sassanid Persian city in modern-day Iran famous for Sasanian Royal Academy of Sciences / important center for Greek learning

Bayt ul Hikma

house of Wisdom in baghdad, iraq

madrasa

institution of higher education

iqta'

non hereditary land grant, often issued by sultans in return for military service.

waqf

an endowment made by a Muslim to a religious, educational, or charitable cause.

Shahinshah

"king of Kings", title used by Buyid rulers, borrowed from ancient traditions of kingship

ghaza/ghazi

Holy war / warrior

rum

(Arabic word for Rome) land of the Byzantines - Anatolia

Maghrib/mashriq

Islamic West (western north Africa and Spain) / Islamic East (east of Libya/Egypt)

Al Qahira

Modern day Cairo, and the fatimid capital in Egypt

Al -Azhar

Mosque complex founded by Fatimids in Cairo

Abbasid empire

750-1258, Golden age of Islam, capital in Baghdad, focused on institutions and economic expansion, ethnic equality, problems were rifts with the Perisans/Shia

saw a major decline with al-muqtadir (the 8th caliph of this empire)

Buyids

945-1055

the empire famously known for taking over the Abbasid caliphate in baghdad. Adud al-dawla being the ruler who expanded the empire to its greatest extent, centralizing administration, fostering hospitals, patronizing arts, etc

Saljuqs

Turkish tribe that gained control over the Abbasid empire and fought with the Byzantine empire.

Chagri Beg - a co-ruler of the early part of the empire (with his brother)

Tughril Beg -founded the empire after defeating the gaznavids

Alp Arslan - second sultan, and known for defeating the byzantines at the decisive battle of Manzikert

Malik Shah - known for expanding the empire to its greatest extent

Nizam al Mulk - established the Nizamiyya madrasas to promote Sunni Islam, creating a strugtured bureaucracy

Tahirids

a dynasty in Khurasan of Persian nobles who served as autonomous governors of Khorasan from 821 to 873 in a holder of land to the Abbasid Caliphate

abdullah b tahir was known for being a prominent governor of khurasan, succeeding his brother talha, and is known for being one of the greatest rulers for fostering agricultural and cultural growth

Saffarids

dynasty of Sistan, one of the first dynasties to challenge the Abbasid caliphate

the founder of this dynasty was Yaqub ibn Layth

Samanids

was a PersianateSunni Muslim empire, ruled by a dynasty of Iranian dehqan origin

Nasr b ahmad was the ruler (amir) of Transoxiana and kurasan as the head of this dynasty. he was a very good ruler because he centralized this empire and made it successful

ghaznavids

dynasty of Turkic origin that ruled in Khorāsān (in northeastern Iran), Afghanistan, and northern India.

- Mahmud was the sultan of the Ghaznavid empire and he transformed it into a major power, stretching across persia, central asia, and Northern India, known for military conquests, spreading islam, and patronizing persian culture

- Mas'ud's reign marked the beginning of its significant decline after his father Mahmud, because he lost major persian territories at the battle of dandanqan.

Saljuqs of Rum

a branch of the Great Seljuk Empire that established a powerful Sunni Muslim sultanate in Anatolia (modern Turkey) from 1077 to 1308, ruling over formerly Byzantine lands, with Konya as their capital.

Abbasids

A dynasty that was significant for ushering in the Islamic Golden Age, shifting power from Arabs to Persians, establishing Baghdad as a thriving cosmopolitan center, and fostering massive advancements in science, math, medicine, and philosophy through the House of Wisdom.

Fatimids

Members of a Muslim shia dynasty that traced its ancestry to Muhammad's daughter Fatima.

Al Hakim was the sixth fatimid ruler and 16th Ismaili Imam, he fostered intellectual growth via the dar al ilm, intensified ismaili da'wa, and spurred the formation of the druze faith

Crusaders in Jerusalem

Crusaders were European Christians who, motivated by religious fervor, land, and wealth, launched military campaigns (Crusades) starting in 1095 to capture Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim rule, successfully taking the city in 1099 during the First Crusade to establish the Kingdom of Jerusalem

Zangids

a sunni muslim dynasty that became famous for its successes against the crusaders, and for being the atabegate from which Saladin originated

- Nur al-Din Mahmud, a pivotal 12th-century leader who united Muslim forces against the Crusaders, captured Damascus, expanded his territory, and fostered culture, becoming a major figure in the Jihad against the Crusades before he died in 1174, paving the way for Saladin.

Ayyubids

- Saladin was the founder of the dynasty, and was crucial for unifying the Muslim Middle East, ending Fatimid Shia rule, and leading successful campaigns against Crusaders, most notably recapturing Jerusalem in 1187 after the Battle of Hattin, making him a legendary figure for uniting Sunni Muslims and earning Western respect for his chivalry, bridging Islamic and European medieval history

Mamluks

Elite slave-soldiers, often of Turkic or Circassian origin, were purchased as boys, converted to Islam, and given rigorous military/administrative training in medieval Muslim states. They eventually formed powerful dynasties, most famously ruling Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517, repelling Mongols and Crusaders, and fostering significant Islamic culture and architecture.

idrisids

Named after the founder, Idris I, the Idrisids were an Alid dynasty descended from Muhammad through his grandson Hasan. They founded Morocco's first independent Islamic state (late 8th-10th centuries), uniting Berber tribes, establishing cities such as Fez (home to the world's oldest university), promoting Islam and Arabic culture, and laying the groundwork for Morocco's enduring monarchical tradition, which has influenced its Islamic-Arab identity for centuries.

Rustamids

North Africa's first major autonomous Islamic state (777-909 AD), centered in Tahert (Algeria), known for economic prosperity through trans-Saharan trade, a unique tolerant Ibadi theocracy fostering intellectual freedom, and significant spread of Islam

fatimids

-al Mu'izz - the powerful fourth Fatimid Caliph and 14th Ismaili Imam who shifted the Fatimid capital from North Africa to Egypt in 969, founding the city of Cairo

-Jawhar al rumi - legendary Fatimid general who conquered Egypt in 969 AD for Caliph al-Mu'izz, founding Cairo (al-Qahira) as the new Fatimid capital and serving as its first viceroy, establishing order and initiating al-Azhar University before the Caliph's arrival

al aziz - fifth Fatimid Caliph, succeeding his father al-Mu'izz, and oversaw the Fatimid Caliphate's peak expansion, particularly into Syria/Levant, clashing with Byzantines while ruling from Egypt

al hakim - the sixth fatimid ruler and 16th Ismaili Imam, he fostered intellectual growth via the dar al ilm, intensified ismaili da'wa, and spurred the formation of the druze faith

Aghlabids

dynasty crucial for establishing the first independent Islamic rule in Ifriqiya (Tunisia), creating a vibrant cultural/trade hub in Kairouan, launching the Muslim conquest of Sicily, developing advanced irrigation and infrastructure (like reservoirs), and connecting Africa, Europe, and the Middle East through trade, leaving a lasting legacy in Sicily's culture and agriculture

zirids

a significant Berber dynasty ruling parts of North Africa (Ifriqiya) and Spain (Granada), important for establishing regional power after the Fatimids, fostering Berber rule, and creating cultural centers, especially in Granada, which became a vital hub for Jewish intellectual life under their tolerant rule

Almoravids

ibn yasin - the spiritual founder of the Almoravids

yusuf ibn tashfin - crucial for establishing the Almoravid Empire, uniting Berber tribes, founding Marrakech as the capital, and saving Muslim Spain (Al-Andalus) from Christian conquest by defeating Alfonso VI at the Battle of Zallaqa in 1086, creating a vast empire from Morocco to Spain

Almohads

ibn tumart - the Berber spiritual leader who founded the Almohad movement

abd al mu'min - was a Berber caliph of the Almohad dynasty (reigned 1130-63), who conquered the North African Maghrib from the Almoravids and brought all the Berbers under one rule

Umayyad Amirate

abd al rahman 1 - was a member of the Umayyad ruling family of Syria who founded an Umayyad dynasty in Spain.

Umayyad Caliphate

abd al rahman III - known in spain for unifying it, declared himself the first Caliph (making it independent), ushered in a Golden Age of prosperity, culture, and tolerance (Muslims, Jews, Christians flourished), built magnificent structures like Madinat al-Zahra, and established a strong, centralized administration, making Córdoba a major world power rivaling Constantinople.

Party Kings/ Muluk al Tawa'if

were rulers of small, fragmented muslim kingdoms in spain after the umayyad caliphate collapsed, including Abbasids of Seville, saragossa, toledo

almoravids (sanhaja berbers)

a powerful Berber Muslim dynasty originating from the Sanhaja nomadic tribes of the Sahara, who, spurred by a strict religious movement led by figures like Ibn Yasin, united and built a vast empire in the 11th-12th centuries, conquering Morocco, parts of Algeria, and Muslim Spain (Al-Andalus) while spreading orthodox Maliki Islam and controlling trans-Saharan trade.