****WORK IN PROGRESS**** BIOL.NRES 421 - Conservation Biology UNR Final Exam

What is a population viability analysis?

a scientific method used to estimate the likelihood that a species will survive or go extinct over a specific time period, based on factors like population size, reproduction, mortality, and environmental threats

Which two factors determine the intrinsic rate of growth of a closed population? Provide an equation that shows how these two factors contribute to population size change over time.

-Births and deaths

-N= B-D

Considering stochasticity is essential to developing robust PVAs. What are two common sources of stochasticity that we discussed on class, provide a definition of each.

1. Environmental stochasticity: Random variation in environmental conditions (e.g., weather, food availability) that affects survival and reproduction rates.

2. Demographic stochasticity: Random fluctuations in birth and death events due to chance, especially in small populations.

How did we incorporate stochasticity into our moose model?

We added stochasticity by using random variation in birth and death rates each year, simulating environmental and demographic uncertainty in the population projections.

With our stochastic models, we used the "sensitivity testing" tool in InsightMaker. Draw a simple graph showing the standard output of this approach (with labeled axes) and provide an interpretation of the results.

The spread of lines shows the range of possible outcomes. A wide spread means high uncertainty and sensitivity to input changes, while a narrow spread indicates more robust predictions.

We compared potential trajectories of our moose population (under a stochastic model) with starting populations of 10 versus 500. How did those outcomes differ and why?

The population starting at 10 had a much higher risk of extinction and showed more variability in outcomes due to demographic and environmental stochasticity. The population starting at 500 was more stable and less likely to go extinct because larger populations are more resilient to random fluctuations.

Draw a conceptual life history model for the Yellowstone Grizzly bear. Why is it important to identify the different life stages for this population?

The life history model includes:

-Cub (0-1 yrs): Fully dependent on mother; high mortality risk.

-Yearling (1-2 yrs): Still with mother; begins learning to forage.

-Subadult (2-5 yrs): Independent; not yet breeding; disperses from natal range.

-Adult (5+ yrs): Reproductive maturity; females raise 1-3 cubs every 2-3 years.

-Old Adult (20+ yrs): Decline in reproductive output and survival.

Identifying life stages is important for conservation because it:

-Highlights vulnerable stages needing protection (e.g., cubs, reproductive females).

-Improves population modeling for management decisions.

-Helps evaluate threats (like habitat loss or human conflict) at each stage.

-Supports recovery planning under the Endangered Species Act.

In our Grizzly bear modeling exercise, we had two sets of key parameters spanning 1983-2001 and 2002-2011. Which vital rates changed the most between these two periods and what does that suggest about factors regulating population growth in this system? How did we incorporate this into our model?

-Cub and yearling survival increased the most.

-Suggests early-life stages are key to population growth and influenced by food and human impacts.

-Incorporated into the model by using different vital rates for each time period to compare population growth.

You are working with a wildlife manager who wants to know the extinction risk probability for a certain population. Describe what information you would gather from the PVA to make such a calculation, provide an example of such a calculation.

Info needed from PVA:

-Initial population size

-Vital rates (survival, reproduction)

-Environmental and demographic variability

-Catastrophe probabilities (e.g., fires, disease)

-Time horizon (e.g., 50 or 100 years)

-Number of simulation runs

Example:

Run 1,000 simulations over 100 years. If the population goes extinct in 120 of them, then:

Extinction risk = 120 / 1,000 = 12%

In our loggerhead turtle PVA, in order to project how many individuals would be in the "large juvenile" class from one year to the next, what demographic information did we have to consider? That is, which components of the transition matrix contribute to this life history stage?

Need to consider:

-Survival of large juveniles (staying in the same stage)

-Growth from small to large juveniles (transition from earlier stage)

These are the diagonal (survival) and sub-diagonal (growth/transition) elements in the transition matrix.

Describe the overall life history of Loggerhead turtles. Name three life stages in which these animals face threats, describe these stage-specific threats. Describe potential management activities that might minimize each of these threats.

Life History Overview:

Eggs → Hatchlings → Oceanic juveniles → Large juveniles → Adults (nesting ~30 yrs+)

Threatened Life Stages & Threats:

1. Eggs/Hatchlings:

Threat: Predation, beach development, artificial lighting

Management: Protect nests, use nest cages, reduce beachfront lighting

2. Oceanic Juveniles:

Threat: Bycatch in fisheries

Management: Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs), bycatch regulations

3. Adults (Nesting females):

Threat: Human disturbance, poaching

Management: Protected nesting beaches, enforcement of laws, limited human access

Name 6 management scenarios we explored for Loggerhead turtles. How did we implement each of these in InsightMaker to explore their potential effects? What were the general outcomes of each, and how would you use this information to argue for particular investment in certain management scenarios?

Management Scenarios:

1. Increased Egg Survival

2. Reduced Hatchling Mortality - Increased survival rate from hatchling to oceanic juvenile

3. Lowered Bycatch Mortality - Increased survival of oceanic and large juveniles

4. Enhanced Juvenile Growth Rates

5. Increased Adult Survival

6. Combined Strategies

Outcomes:

-Adult and large juvenile survival had the biggest impact on population growth.

-Egg and hatchling-focused strategies had limited effect alone.

-Combined strategies gave the highest population growth, showing synergy between interventions.

From our loggerhead turtle PVA, name three management scenarios that the class explored. Compare the short and long term projected population trends within these scenarios. Were long term trends always clear from short term trends? If not, what challenges does this pose to the conservation biologist in charge of this species?

Scenarios Explored:

1. Increased Egg Survival

2. Reduced Juvenile Bycatch

3. Enhanced Adult Survival

Trends:

-Some scenarios (e.g., egg survival) showed quick short-term gains but minimal long-term impact.

-Others (e.g., adult survival) had slow initial change but led to strong long-term growth.

-Bycatch reduction had moderate short-term gains and large long-term benefits.

Challenge:

Short-term trends can be misleading. Conservation biologists must prioritize actions with lasting effects, even if they show delayed results, and justify funding for strategies with long-term payoffs.

You plan to develop a PVA for a species we know very little about. Create a graphic that shows the key life history or demographic stages and transitions (stocks and flows) that are important for this taxon (an image like we made in InsightMaker). Given the model you plan to use, what field data will you need to collect? Provide some plausible values for the key parameters in your model (based simply on your knowledge of this system, even before the field data are all collected).

Data needed:

Demographic

-Population counts.

-Survival/death rates.

-Birth rates.

Relationships:

-Habitat

-Species interaction

What is CITES and what is it intended to do?

-Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

Intention:

Regulate and monitor international trade in endangered species of plants and animals to ensure their survival and prevent exploitation.

-It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival in the wild while also recognizing the socioeconomic importance of such trade for certain communities.

-The ultimate goal is to balance conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity.

Name four criticisms of CITES. Suggest approaches or new perspectives that would alleviate these criticisms.

Criticisms

1. species focus

2. does not identify critical habitat or recovery

3. 'negative list'

4. no provision to promote sustainable use

5. expensive membership; conflict of interest

What are the two primary goals of the IUCN Red List?

Goals:

1. Identify and document those species most in need of conservation attention if global extinction rates are to be reduced.

2. Provide a global index of the state of change of biodiversity.

The Red List category in which a species is placed is based on what four types of population/species information.

1. An observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected population size reduction of > 90% over the last 10 years or three generations, where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible and understood and ceased.

2. Extent of occurrence estimated to be less than 100 km2 or extent of occupancy less than 10 km2 and estimates

3. Population estimated to number fewer than 250 mature individuals

4. Quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50% within 10 years or three generations, whichever is longer

What agency (or agencies) oversee the Endangered Species Act?

-U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for terrestrial and freshwater species-National Marine Fisheries Service for marine species and anadromous species such as salmon

Provide a brief definition of the following under the ESA: endangered, threatened, critical habitat.

-Endangered Species: species that are likely to become extinct throughout all or a large portion of their range

-Threatened Species: species that are likely to become endangered in the near future

-Critical habitat: vital to the survival of endangered or threatened species

List at least three questions/requirements that must characterize a species or DPS if it is to be considered for listing under ESA.

1. Has a large percentage of the species vital habitat been degraded or destroyed?

2. Has the species been over-consumed by commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational uses?

3. Is the species threatened by disease or predation?

4. Do current regulations or legislations inadequately protect the species?

5. Are there other man made factors that threaten the long-term survival of the species?

When a petition to list a species under ESA is received, list the 3-4 main step of what happens next. Describe this in words or with a simple schematic.

1. is it substantial?

2. Status review

3. Warranted?

4. Published proposed rule, 60 day comment period, Hold hearing if requested

5. Final rule or rule withdrawal

What does the finding 'warranted but precluded' mean, provide an example of a species that received this listing in the recent past.

-Warranted but precluded: warranted because of loss and fragmentation of habitat and lack of adequate regulatory mechanisms to stem habitat loss

-Example of this listing in the recent past is the Greater Sage grouse.

In 2010, the Greater sage grouse was found to be "warranted but precluded" for listing under the Endangered Species Act. What two reasons did the US Fish and Wildlife Service give for finding that sage grouse were warranted for listing?

Warranted because of loss and fragmentation of habitat and lack of adequate regulatory mechanisms to stem habitat loss.

The Devil's Hole pupfish was part of a landmark decision concerning the maintenance of its habitat. What was the source of the conflict between this species and other uses of natural resources from Ash Meadows? And what did the Supreme Court decide concerning this issue in 1976?

History:

-First noticed in 1890

-Designated endangered 1967

-Agricultural development in the Ash Meadows area in the 1960's, water level started to drop

-1976 Supreme Court decision stopped local pumping of ground water

Conflict:

the water that ash meadows contain and using it for agricultural development. Supreme court decision to stop local pumping of groundwater.

The Dixie Valley Toad received emergency listing under the ESA on April 4, 2022. What are three major threats this species faces?

Primary Threats

-Geothermal development

-Groundwater pumping

-Disease

-Predation by other non-native frogs

-Climate change

In its petition to the US Fish and Wildlife service to list the Dixie Valley Toad under the ESA in 2017, what imminent threat did the Center for Biological Diversity highlight, and what data did they use to support the significance of this threat.

-They highlighted the imminent threat of the drying up of Jersey Valley Hot springs.

-They used the flow rate of the hot springs to support the significance of this threat.

What are the 3 R's that are typically considered and planned for in a species recovery plan; provide a brief description of each.

Representation: capturing some of everything

Resiliency: ability to persist through severe hardship

Redundancy: several of one type to buffer against loss

Henson et al. (2018) suggest that there are three main categories of challenges to delisting a species under the ESA. Briefly describe what each of these categories mean or provide an example of each.

1. Biological Challenges: Ensuring the species can maintain a self-sustaining population in the wild.

Example: A species may be recovered in numbers but still vulnerable to habitat loss, disease, or genetic bottlenecks (e.g., small populations that lack genetic diversity).

2. Regulatory Challenges: Navigating legal and procedural hurdles to meet the delisting criteria under the ESA.

Example: Species may be delayed in delisting due to insufficient evidence that recovery goals have been fully met, or due to political disagreements about what constitutes "recovery."

3. Socioeconomic Challenges: Balancing conservation with human interests such as land use, economic development, and industry needs.

Example: Delisting could face opposition from local stakeholders if it leads to restrictions on development or resource extraction (e.g., logging, mining) in areas where the species is found.

What parts of an economy do most people generally consider? What roles does nature play in this? Are these roles typically considered? Use a simple diagram to support your answer.

Economy parts (factor market)

-Housing

-Firms

Roles (nature)

-Provide natural resources for these economic parts.

What are "externalities"? Provide an example.

-Externalities: when all costs or benefits are not accounted for.

-An example of this is the total emission rates of countries? (Cause they're estimated)

Describe what is meant by 'the tragedy of the commons'.

-Occurs when people overuse a common resource often to the point of depletion

Provide an example of 'command and control' regulation. Describe one benefit and one drawback of such approaches.

Placing emission standards on companies to stay below. Holds people accountable for the amount of emissions they produce. Also can be hard to enforce without the correct laws in place.

List and describe two examples of incentive-based market approaches.

-Cap and trade can reduce emissions by setting a limit on pollution and rewards companies that stay below that limit.

-Market friction which can be brought about by making the public aware of activities of companies that might be heavily contributing to pollution levels

Describe at least one example of how you might assign a monetary value to an environmental good or service.

Method: Contingent Valuation

This method involves surveying people to ask how much they would be willing to pay for the preservation of a wetland or for specific services it provides, like flood control, water filtration, or habitat for wildlife.

Process:

Conduct surveys with local communities, businesses, or the general public.

Ask participants how much they would be willing to pay (or accept) for maintaining or restoring wetland functions.

Outcome: The aggregated amount people are willing to pay provides a monetary value of the wetland's services.

Briefly describe the New York City Watershed Protection Program and how this case provides an important example of valuation of ecosystem services.

The protection program engaged with farmers to plan how to reduce runoff and pollution/use of the watershed. This involved voluntary stewardship from the local farmers. It was cheaper to have the farmers/companies work together to reduce pollution than having to build a facility to process the water.

Appleton (2002) notes two critical lessons learned from the New York City Watershed Protection Program that can be applied to other situations, what are they?

1. Identify and target a high level of ecosystem services, real or potential = higher economic benefit

2. Monetize services so that value can be captured, change policies and regulations to allow it

Conservation can be compared to heath care from the perspective of economic investment. Provide a simple graphic or describe this comparison more fully.

1. Prevention vs. Cure:

Healthcare: Investing in preventative care (e.g., vaccinations) is often cheaper than paying for treatment after a serious illness.

Conservation: Investing in preventative conservation (e.g., protecting habitat or species) is more cost-effective than trying to restore ecosystems or species once they are critically endangered or extinct.

2. Economic Returns:

Healthcare: Healthy populations have higher productivity and fewer healthcare costs.

Conservation: Healthy ecosystems provide economic returns through ecosystem services (e.g., clean water, pollination, tourism).

Describe at least three ways that Henson et al. (2018) argue that the ESA could be improved.

1. Incorporating climate change into decision-making

2. Enhance collaboration with states and local stakeholders

3. Expand the use of recovery plans and monitoring

What is a Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances? In general, what does the public get out of such agreements and what does the landowner get?

-Public: improved habitat, habitat largely intact with minimal future roads or human alterations, connected patches, secure habitat with minimal physical impacts on species

-Landowner: permission for a specified level of incidental take during 'covered activities'; may include crop cultivation and harvesting, livestock grazing and production, farm equipment operation and recreational activities

Describe how a wildlife or conservation credit/banking system works.

Market-based mechanism; quantifies conservation outcomes (Credits) and negative impacts from human activities (debits) as market transactions. Credits can be used or sold. Conservation easement... value is based on habitat suitability modeling. "Net conservation benefit"

Conservation banks targeted at ESA-listed or candidate species are a relatively new and potentially powerful conservation tool. Describe two potential benefits and two potential drawbacks of such approaches. How could at least one of the drawbacks you list be overcome?

-Benefits: conservation of local species and promotes bonding between individuals and companies/federal agencies

-Drawbacks: potential for abuse of the system and potential unwillingness from landowners

-Potential for abuse could be solved by increasing fines/punishments if found abusing the system.

Provide a general definition of 'restoration' as provided by the Society for Ecological Restoration.

Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed

Name 5 characteristics of a restored community.

1. Contains a characteristic mix of species that occur in a reference ecosystem

2. Species are present in appropriate amounts

3. Consists of native species to the greatest practicable extent

4. The environment is capable of sustaining reproducing populations

5. Is sufficiently resilient to endure periodic stress events

Various restoration-related endpoints might characterize a particular project. Describe and graph each of these potential endpoints in terms of their achievement of species composition/complexity and ecosystem function/processes.

1. Species Composition/Complexity:

Endpoint Description: This endpoint focuses on the diversity and abundance of species within a restored ecosystem. It looks at whether the target species are reintroduced or recolonize the ecosystem.

2. Ecosystem Function/Processes:

Endpoint Description: Focuses on the biological and physical processes that support ecosystem health (e.g., nutrient cycling, soil formation, water filtration). It assesses how well the ecosystem's functions have returned to a level that supports sustainability.

3. Complete Ecosystem Recovery (Species Composition + Function):

Endpoint Description: The full recovery of both species complexity and ecosystem functions, where both the community structure and ecological processes are restored to their functional and dynamic pre-disturbance levels.

List three things that characterize a "reference" or "historic" community.

1. Species Composition:

The species present in a reference community are those that existed naturally in the ecosystem before human disturbances. This includes native species and their natural abundances.

2. Ecosystem Structure and Complexity:

The physical arrangement of habitats and the relationships between different species in the ecosystem (e.g., trophic structure, vegetation layers) are representative of the community's natural state.

3. Ecological Processes and Functions:

Key ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, pollination, predation, and seed dispersal occur at natural rates and patterns. These processes help maintain the overall ecosystem stability and resilience.

Provide three reasons why restoration ecologists need to identify their reference community for any given project.

1. To define the preferred condition of a degraded system, set goals

2. To define what needs to be done to restore the ecosystem

3. To help develop criteria for measuring the success of restoration treatments

Name 5 potential sources of information that a restoration ecologist might use to identify their reference community or historic ecosystem.

1. Repeat photography

2. Dendrochronology

3. fire

4. Packrat middens

5. maps

Describe the three main ideas behind the "states and transitions" framework as it applies to a particular ecosystem or site. Use a simple graphic to explain your answer. What is the overall message of this in terms of setting restoration goals?

-For a given site, there is more than one possible state

-these states can be relatively stable

-Takes extreme disturbance to push vegetation out of current state

-Once you cross a threshold, itis difficult to return to a previous state

Describe the idea of "novel ecosystems". Do you think this is a helpful or harmful idea in conservation and restoration? Why?

-Novel ecosystem: Refers to a new species combination that arises spontaneously and irreversibly in response to anthropogenic land-use changes, species introductions, and climate change, without correspondence to any historic ecosystem.

-Harmful idea because " no proof of ecological thresholds that would prevent restoration has ever been demonstrated" and "inherent biodiversity values shouldn't be abandoned in favor of functional values".

In very large-scale reseeding efforts in Nevada, there is typically a 1% rate of successful establishment. What is the main reason for this?

Environmental factors are responsible for low success rates as well as a mismatch between genotypes and environments (seeds planted from populations in different types of environments).

List three reasons why a restoration ecologist should care about local adaptation in the seeds they are using for restoration.

1. Maintain historic genotypes

2. Maintain ability to respond to natural variation

3. Increase likelihood of establishing in a particular site

What is adaptive management? Describe how you would apply this framework (i.e., the major steps) to a specific restoration project or other conservation activity that you are implementing and trying to improve.

Decision-making process that allows for flexibility and learning in the management of complex systems or projects. It involves continually monitoring and assessing the performance of actions or interventions, adjusting strategies based on new information and changing conditions, and incorporating feedback to improve outcomes over time.

Provide a brief definition of "reintroductions", "rewilding", and "de-extinction".

-Reintroductions:

The process of reintroducing a species to an area where it has been previously extirpated or driven extinct, usually to restore ecological balance or enhance biodiversity.

-Rewilding:

A conservation approach that focuses on restoring ecosystems by reintroducing keystone species or top predators and allowing natural processes to shape the environment. It may include species that have been extirpated, as well as habitat restoration.

-De-extinction:

The scientific process of bringing back species that have been extinct, typically through genetic technology or selective breeding, with the goal of re-establishing lost species in modern ecosystems.

Briefly describe the recent case of the de-extinction of the Dire Wolf. Do you agree with the claim that Dire wolves have been brought back from extinction? Why or why not?

-Colossal Biosciences announced the birth of 3 puppies in 2025, claiming they are the first Dire Wolves since extinction.

-Using gene-editing, gray wolves were modified to express traits of the extinct Dire Wolf (Aenocyon dirus).

-These are genetically modified gray wolves, not true Dire Wolves.

-The project does NOT represent true de-extinction.

-Concerns that it may threaten existing species, like gray wolves.

Describe three potential dangers of entities like the US Fish and Wildlife Service relying too heavily on the promise of de-extinction.

1. Diverting resources from conservation efforts

2. Ethical and ecological uncertainty

3. False sense of security

According to the IUCN, what is a protected area? Provide the name of at least three protected area categories that the IUCN recognizes and two reasons why just "strict protection" may not always lead to the greatest conservation outcomes.

Protected area: A clearly defined geographical area, recognized, dedicated, and managed through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature.

Protected Area Categories:

-Category I (Strict Nature Reserve): Areas strictly protected for scientific research and biodiversity conservation.

-Category II (National Park): Protected areas managed for ecosystem protection and recreation.

-Category V (Protected Landscape/Seascape): Areas where nature and culture interact, aiming to protect both.

Protections may not work because:

-Human-wildlife conflicts

-Limited ecosystem connectivity

What is the goal of the Half Earth Project? What is the main conclusion reached by Pimm et al. (2018) concerning which areas we should protect?

-Protecting half the earth surface would protect 85% of species Key is 'which half?'(Pimm et al. 2018)

-Indigenous rights and essential stewardship

According to Maxwell et al. (2020), what evidence do they present to support the idea that protected areas function as intended? What approach do they suggest would provide more funding to support protected areas?

Evidence:

Limited Expansion Success and management challenges

Approach:

Diversified financing mechanisms

The Convention on Biological Diversity's Target 3 from the Kunming-Montreal conference sets out a bold conservation goal for protected areas, what is it? Globally, how close are we to meeting that goal in the terrestrial and marine realms (according to the Protected Planet Report).

By 2030 at least 30% of terrestrial, inland, and coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, are effectively conserved and managed through ecologically representative.

Globally:

- Terrestrial and Inland Waters: Approximately 17.6% (needs 16.7 million km^2 to reach 30%)

- Marine and Coastal Areas: About 8.4% (needs 78.3 million km^2)

What is an umbrella species? Name two benefits and two drawbacks of using such a tactic in reserve design?

-Umbrella species is a species that is protected indirectly in a way that many other species that make up the ecological community of its habitat are protected as well (panther)

-two benefits: help underhand complexity and support trophic levels

-drawbacks: simplifies a community, umbrella species could be wrong (misidentified)

Provide a schematic, perhaps similar to that in Breckheimer et al. 2014, that show how restoration for one taxon may or may be of benefit to another species. Which of these would support the idea of an "umbrella species" and why?

Restoration Example:

-Taxon A Restoration → Benefits Taxon A

-Indirect benefits to other species

Umbrella Species:

-Taxon A could be an umbrella species—its conservation helps protect many other species that share the same habitat.

Why It Works: Protecting Taxon A (e.g., a large mammal) means improving the habitat for other species (e.g., birds, insects) that need similar resources.

What was/is the SLOSS debate? Name three points that proponents of each side of this debate might highlight as the benefit of their approach.

Debate in ecology and conservation biology during the 1970s and 80s as to whether a single large or several small (SLOSS) reserves were a superior means of conserving biodiversity in a fragmented habitat

Large reserves

- reduced edge effect

- larger area for diversity

- specific range for shifts

Small reserves

- more realistic

- can capture different areas

- localize better

Linking reserves with corridors has been controversial at various points in the history of Conservation Biology. Describe two potential benefits and two potential drawbacks of linking reserves with corridors.

-Benefits: allows for shifts in population and allows for diversity and connectivity

-Cons: species may not use it and it is not well studied for a solid conclusion

What experimental design did Damschen et al. (2006) use to test the impact of corridors on species richness? What did they find in the original study that spanned 2001-2005? In 2019, they analyzed many additional years of data, what were the two main conclusions of the new study?

-One plot had an unconnected winged area, one plot had two areas connected with each other, and one plot unconnected rectangular area. Found that connected areas generally had higher species richness than unconnected areas.

-Conclusions of new study: Connected sites had 5% greater colonization rate and 2% lower extinction rate. 24 more plant species in connected than unconnected sites

In their 'climate aware' approach to reserve design, what do Pearson and Dawson (2005) suggest in terms of general reserve shape/layout and with regards to corridors? What is the rationale behind these designs?

Reserve Shape/Layout:

-Linear or Elongated Designs: Reserves should be linear or elongated, not compact.

-Rationale: Allows species to move along climatic gradients (e.g., temperature, precipitation shifts) due to climate change.

Corridors:

-Climate Gradient Corridors: Corridors should follow environmental gradients and connect reserves.

-Rationale: Helps species track suitable habitats as climate conditions shift.

Hemming et al. (2022) list several common challenges to conservation decisions (hint: leftmost column in their Table 1). List at least 4 of these and provide a brief explanation or example of each.

1. Lack of Shared Objectives: Stakeholders may have differing or unclear objectives, leading to misaligned conservation goals and potential conflicts.

2. Inadequate Data: Limited or poor-quality data can hinder effective decision-making, making it challenging to assess the impacts of conservation actions.

3. Resource Constraints: Limited financial and human resources can restrict the implementation of conservation strategies, necessitating prioritization of actions.

4. Uncertainty and Complexity: Ecological systems are complex and unpredictable, making it difficult to anticipate the outcomes of conservation interventions.

Provide a concise definition of structured decision making.

systematic process used to make informed and transparent decisions by breaking down complex problems into manageable components

The acronym PrOACT conveys the major steps in structured decision making. What are these major steps, provide a brief definition of each.

Pr - Problem:

Define the decision problem clearly, identifying the key issues and what needs to be resolved.

O - Objectives:

Identify and clarify the objectives that the decision aims to achieve, guiding the evaluation of alternatives.

A - Alternatives:

Generate a list of possible alternatives or actions that could potentially address the problem and meet the objectives.

C - Consequences:

Assess the potential outcomes of each alternative, considering how they align with the objectives and their associated risks.

T - Trade-offs:

Evaluate the trade-offs between alternatives, considering the relative importance of each objective and the consequences of choosing one option over another.

Dr. Folt presented a graphic (hint: his slide 19) that helps assess when structured decision making (SDM) may or may not be appropriate to help achieve desired conservation outcomes. Sketch out this graphic and provide an example of when the SDM process may not yet be the best approach. How might you overcome this limitation so that you can enter into SDM?

SDM is Appropriate When:

-Clear goals and multiple options exist.

-Data supports decision-making.

SDM is Not Appropriate When:

-Goals are unclear.

-Few options or insufficient data.

Example:

Problem: Managing an ecosystem with an unknown invasive species.

Limitation: Lack of data on species impacts.

Solution:

Conduct research to clarify goals and gather data.

Describe the difference between a fundamental objective and a means objective. Provide an example of the contrast between these for an example of your choice, or one that was provided to you in association with management of long-leaf pine forests. How can confusing these two types of objectives be problematic in achieving positive conservation outcomes?

-Fundamental Objective:

The ultimate goal or end result that decision-makers want to achieve, reflecting the desired outcome.

Example (Longleaf Pine Forests): Increase biodiversity (e.g., restoring habitat for species dependent on longleaf pine ecosystems).

-Means Objective:

A strategy or action that helps achieve the fundamental objective, but is not the end goal itself.

Example (Longleaf Pine Forests): Restore fire management practices (e.g., controlled burns to maintain the habitat).

-Potential Problem:

Confusing a means objective with a fundamental objective can lead to ineffective management. For example, focusing too much on fire management (a means) without clearly aiming for biodiversity (the fundamental objective) may not lead to the desired conservation outcomes.

Provide an example of your choice that demonstrates the first three steps of the PrOACT process. You can sketch these out in a diagram, but please include notes to further describe your process.

Pr - Problem Definition:

The Florida panther is endangered due to habitat loss and genetic inbreeding.

O - Objectives:

Fundamental Objective: Increase panther population.

Means Objectives:

Increase genetic diversity.

Restore and protect habitat.

Reduce human-wildlife conflict.

A - Options:

Option 1: Introduce individuals from other populations.

Option 2: Expand protected habitat and improve connectivity.

Option 3: Implement road mitigation strategies (e.g., wildlife overpasses).

Define a conservation problem and provide a list of the decision makers and stakeholders that you would invite to engage in your structured decision making process. Provide a brief explanation of why you are including each of them.

Conservation Problem:

Declining coral reef health due to climate change, pollution, and overfishing. Urgent restoration efforts are needed to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Decision Makers & Stakeholders:

-Government Agencies

-Fishing Industry

-Tourism Operators

-Local Communities

-Scientists and Researchers

What is climate adaptation?

process of adjusting natural or human systems to minimize the negative impacts of climate change or to take advantage of new opportunities that arise from changing conditions.

List and describe 3 ways in which conservationists can begin to plan in a "climate aware" way. Provide an example of each.

1. Identify Climate Change Vulnerabilities: Mapping coastal habitats at risk of sea-level rise to prioritize protection efforts for vulnerable species like sea turtles

2. Design for Flexibility and Adaptation: creating ecological corridors to allow species migration in response to temperature shifts, helping animals adapt to new habitats.

3. Integrate Climate Projections into Planning: Restoring and enhancing habitats based on future climate scenarios, such as planting drought-resistant plants in arid regions to withstand expected climate conditions.

Describe the three major elements of the "RAD Framework" and what this framework encourages/allows managers to do in how they approach management.

R - Resilience: Focuses on building the ability of ecosystems and species to recover from disturbances and adapt to changes, like climate change or human impacts.

A - Adaptation: Involves adjusting management strategies in response to changing conditions and new knowledge.

D - Diversity: Emphasizes maintaining biological, ecological, and cultural diversity as key to long-term system stability.

Provide an example of how you might apply the "RAD Framework" to a particular situation (habitat or species). Describe each of "RAD" conditions for this situation and propose how you would know when to switch from one to the other.

R - Resilience:

Action: Restore milkweed habitats and nectar sources.

When to Switch: If populations recover and habitats improve, move to Adaptation.

A - Adaptation:

Action: Plant climate-resilient milkweed and adjust migration routes.

When to Switch: If environmental changes persist, move to Diversity.

D - Diversity:

Action: Create diverse habitats with a range of plants and milkweed species.

When to Switch: Once diversity is established, monitor for further adaptation or resilience needs.

Chornesky et al. (2015) propose Suisun Bay as an example of "managing for change". What two main points do they make with this case study?

1. Shift to Adaptive Management:

Move from fixed strategies to flexible approaches to handle changes like sea-level rise.

2. Collaborative Planning:

Involve all stakeholders (government, landowners, conservationists) in decision-making for better outcomes.

Provide an example of land-sharing or land-sparing and what the overall benefits of such an approach might be in the case you propose.

Land-Sparing Example:

Protected Areas (e.g., national parks for endangered species).

Benefits:

Focuses on preserving undisturbed habitats.

Reduces human-wildlife conflict.

Land-Sharing Example:

Agroforestry (e.g., fruit trees in crops).

Benefits:

Supports biodiversity while allowing farming.

Enhances ecosystem services like water filtration.

Heller et al. (2015) provide an example of how we might prioritize acquisition of particular land parcels based on certain criteria. What do they advocate in terms of criteria we should consider when we are expanding our protected area network?

Climatic Diversity:

Protect areas with diverse climates to provide refugia and aid species adaptation.

Climatic Stability:

Focus on areas with stable climatic conditions to ensure species persistence.

Penrod et al (2012) proposed a protected area linkage network for the California deserts. What were at least three of their overall goals for the linkage network? What process or series of steps did they go through to establish the linkage network?

Goals:

1. Maintain Connectivity: Ensure species can move between habitats.

2. Enhance Climate Resilience: Help species adapt to changing environments.

3. Prioritize Conservation: Focus on the most important and threatened areas.

Process:

1. Expert Input: Gather ideas from scientists and land managers.

2. Evaluate Linkages: Assess potential corridors for biological value.

3. Species Modeling: Use models to design corridors for specific species.

4. Implementation: Plan for land acquisition and barrier removal.

Lynch et al. 2022 suggest how the RAD framework can be integrated with the classic adaptive management framework. Sketch and label a diagram that captures at least 4-5 of the most important elements of this proposed integrated approach. What do you see as the strengths of such an approach?

Elements of the Integrated Approach:

1. Resilience (RAD) - Focus on making ecosystems more resilient to change.

2. Monitoring (Adaptive Management) - Continuously track progress and conditions.

3. Decision Points (Adaptive Management) - Make decisions based on new data.

4. Feedback Loops (Adaptive Management) - Adjust strategies based on feedback.

5. Diversity (RAD) - Protect biodiversity to increase system adaptability.

Strengths:

-Flexible and adaptive to changing conditions.

-Supports long-term sustainability by adjusting to future challenges.

-Comprehensive approach, balancing resilience, diversity, and learning.