POLI 369 Chapter 8

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Peasant-tributary taxation system

The predominant social feature of ancient Egypt's civilization, where peasants paid tributes to the kings, resulting in an enormous surplus that was appropriated by the ruling class.

Centralized government

The evolution of the tributary system into a highly centralized form of government in ancient Egypt.

Tulunid, Fatimid, Ayyubid, and Mamluk rulers

Rulers based in Egypt between the tenth and sixteenth centuries who benefited from the profits of the southern trade route through the Red Sea, supporting urban centers and cultural development.

Muhammad 'Ali

An Albanian junior officer who became the Wali (governor) of Egypt in 1805 and is considered the founder of modern Egypt. He implemented comprehensive reforms, including building an industrial infrastructure and developing a strong national army.

European Debt Commission

A commission imposed on Egypt in 1876 due to its ruinous debt, leading to veiled colonial administration by European powers.

Landed aristocracy

The ruling class in Egypt that transformed into a class of agrarian capitalists or landowners, dependent on global markets for their prosperity.

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Leader of the 1880s movement in Egypt, representing the rising spirit of nationalism and patriotism against British influence.

British occupation

The 72-year period of British rule in Egypt, characterized by strict control and limited self-government.

National Party

A political party led by Mustafa Kamel and Mohammad Farid, representing the Egyptian intelligentsia and advocating for independence from British rule.

Paris Peace Conference

A conference attended by Egyptian delegates in 1919 to demand independence, but failed to secure it, resulting in the recognition of British protectorate.

Anglo-Egyptian Treaty

A treaty concluded in 1936, granting Egypt a substantial degree of independence while retaining British control of the Suez Canal.

World War II

A global conflict that took place from 1939 to 1945, involving many countries including Egypt and resulting in significant political and economic changes.

British base of operations

Egypt served as a strategic location for the British during World War II, allowing them to control and coordinate military operations in the region.

Deprivation

The masses in Egypt experienced severe deprivation during World War II, similar to their experiences in World War I, due to skyrocketing commodity prices and economic hardships.

Mustafa al-Nahhas

Leader of the Wafd Party and representative of the people during the war, who was forced to take over the government from Farouk.

Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936

A treaty between Britain and Egypt that was abrogated by the Egyptian Parliament in 1951, leading to a period of domestic instability and disquiet.

State of Israel

The creation of the State of Israel in 1948 drastically altered Egypt's perception of Britain, as Egyptians believed Britain was responsible for its creation.

Palestine war

Egyptian troops participated in the Palestine war in 1948, but their poor performance against Zionist forces and revelations of corrupt government practices humiliated the Egyptian people.

Popular uprising

Between October 1951 and Black Saturday, there was a widespread popular uprising in Egypt, with various socio-economic strata and political organizations joining together in opposition to the regime.

Free Officers' Movement

A group of young Egyptian army officers who led a successful coup against the monarchy on July 22, 1952, resulting in the end of the Egyptian monarchy and the establishment of a republic.

Gamal Abdel Nasser

The acknowledged head of the Free Officers' Movement and a key figure in the Egyptian revolution, who later became the President of Egypt and the leader of Nasserism.

Nasserism

A political ideology associated with Gamal Abdel Nasser, characterized by Arab nationalism, domestic reform, economic development, and an activist foreign policy.

Military Control

Prior to the new constitution in 1956, the military gained control of civil sources of power such as organized labor, student unions, and civil associations.

State Control

The state monopolized information media and recruited the intelligentsia to become regime ideologues, allowing for total control.

Land Reform

The land reform act of 1952 targeted the power of the landed aristocracy, confiscating land from 93 landowners. Small landholders were not affected.

Nationalization

A series of nationalization measures in 1961 transferred financial, industrial, agrarian, and service sectors to state control.

National Union

The National Union, established in 1956, vetted candidates for Parliament and controlled the list of approved candidates.

Arab Socialist Union (ASU)

The ASU replaced the National Union and became a prerequisite for running for a seat in the National Assembly.

State-Planned Capitalism (SPC)

Nasser's economic policy focused on centralized administration and economic management, with the state controlling investment and production.

Bureaucratic Bourgeoisie

The expansion of the public sector created a powerful bureaucratic bourgeoisie that exploited the power of the state for personal gain.

Corruption

Corruption was widespread in Nasser's regime, ranging from large-scale graft to petty bribery.

Foreign Policy

Nasser's foreign policy focused on the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, the Cold War, and the dynamics of the Middle East.

Nasserism

Nasserism was a brand of Arab nationalism with the goal of Arab unity, using the Palestine problem as a rallying point.

De-Nasserization

Under Sadat's rule, there was a comprehensive reorientation process, moving away from Nasserism.

Sadat's lack of a charismatic personality

Sadat did not possess a magnetic personal relationship with the public, which affected his ability to gain widespread popularity and support.

Success in domestic and foreign affairs

Sadat sought to establish his legitimacy through success in both domestic and foreign affairs, including making peace with Israel and liberalizing Egypt.

The "permanent" constitution

In 1971, Sadat created a "permanent" constitution that provided for an elected legislature, the People's Assembly, but still gave the president great power.

Reorganization of the ASU

The Arab Socialist Union (ASU) was reorganized into three forums - the Right, the Center, and the Left - which later transformed into political parties in 1977.

Expulsion of Soviet military personnel

In 1972, Sadat ordered the expulsion of Soviet military personnel from Egypt in an attempt to win American support, but it did not materialize.

The October war

Egypt and Syria launched a war in 1973 as a diplomatic gambit, but the military strategy changed and resulted in a military setback for Egypt.

Camp David Accords

The political outcome of the war led to the Egyptian-Israeli peace agreement known as the Camp David Accords, which had domestic, regional, and international repercussions.

Economic policy under Sadat

Sadat implemented an economic open door policy, known as infitah, which led to the reemergence of the pre-1952 bourgeoisie and increased poverty for the majority.

Political liberalization under Sadat

Sadat introduced political reforms within the Arab Socialist Union (ASU), allowing for the establishment of political forums and later independent political parties.

Restrictions on political parties

Despite the reintroduction of competitive party politics, the Political Parties Law placed major restrictions on the formation and operation of political parties in Egypt.

Committee for Political Parties' Affairs

A committee established under the Law to review and approve the establishment of political parties in Egypt. It was chaired by the secretary of the Central Committee of the ASU and composed of the minister of justice, the minister of interior, the state minister for the People's Assembly, and three independents. The Committee had the authority to examine applications, request necessary documents, and ban activities of political parties if they violated the Constitution or did not abide by their declared program.

Liberalized autocracy

A term used to describe the political system under Sadat and Mubarak, where limited political liberalization was allowed to project an image of democracy to the West, but the regime maintained full control over the process. It was a way of warding off true democracy and entrenching autocratic rule.

Opposition parties

Political parties that contested heavily rigged parliamentary elections in Egypt. They were incorporated into the authoritarian system by allowing them to win a few seats and accompanying benefits. However, their participation did not indicate real change, and the ruling party still maintained a majority.

State of Emergency

Laws passed in 1981 that declared a state of emergency in Egypt, allowing the government to suspend constitutional protections, restrict basic freedoms, and subject Egyptians to warrantless arrests and searches. It created a culture of impunity for state authorities and expanded the role of the security apparatus.

Electoral system under Mubarak

Under Mubarak, the electoral system underwent changes, including the establishment of three major electoral rules. These rules included decreasing the number of electoral districts, conducting elections based on party slates, and requiring political parties to obtain at least 8 percent of the vote to be eligible for seats in Parliament.

Opposition boycott

In 1990, the major opposition parties, the Wafd Party and the Socialist Labor Party (SLP)-Brotherhood Alliance, decided to boycott the elections due to the state of emergency still in effect. The National Democratic Party (NDP) won an overwhelming majority of the seats, with independent candidates and the New Wafd Party winning a small percentage.

Law amendments

In 1992, Law 40/1977 was amended to impose stricter restrictions on political party activity, including banning founding members from activities prior to approval by the Parties Committee. The penal code (Law 97/1992) was also amended to allow for harsher penalties for acts of "terrorism" and to refer such cases to military courts.

Human rights violations

The Egyptian government implemented stringent security measures against Islamic opposition groups, leading to a drop in terrorist attacks but at the sacrifice of human rights. Detentions, killings, and executions of suspected fanatics were reported, raising concerns about the violation of human rights in the country.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

The Egyptian government claimed to encourage the establishment of NGOs as a way to foster democracy and mass participation. NGOs were seen as key to democratization, although their actual role and influence were limited under the regime.

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Ministry of Social Affairs

The department in Egypt that supervises NGOs and subjects them to close scrutiny, regardless of their differences in purposes and activities.

Law 84 (2002)

A law in Egypt that requires the approval of the Ministry of Social Affairs for the formation of any civil society association.

Article 25

A regulation that limits the scope of potential NGOs in Egypt and prevents them from cooperating with established political parties.

Article 34

Gives the Ministry of Social Affairs the power to disqualify candidates for the membership of governing bodies within NGOs.

Article 23

Allows the Ministry of Social Affairs to force NGOs to rescind any decision or decree that violates laws.

Civil society

A sound civil society that is hindered from forming in Egypt due to severe regulations on NGOs.

Muslim Brotherhood

An outlawed opposition party in Egypt that participated in the 1995 parliamentary election despite its illegal status.

Election boycott

Past attempts by opposition parties to boycott elections in Egypt, which were unsuccessful.

Parliamentary election

The election held in 1995 in Egypt, where Mubarak's supporters claimed over 400 out of 444 parliamentary seats.

Supreme Constitutional Court

The court in Egypt that invalidated 121 laws, including those enacted before the 1952 revolution.

Higher Constitutional Court

The court in Egypt that invalidated the election of the 1990 Parliament, leading to the Parliament then in session being considered illegitimate.

Gamal Mubarak

The son of President Mubarak who played a role in the reforms and was appointed Secretary of the NDP Policies' Committee.

National Council for Human Rights

A government-appointed body in Egypt set up in 2002 to enhance the façade of democracy.

Kefaya (Enough)

An opposition movement in Egypt formed in 2004, demanding political and constitutional reform and the end of Mubarak's rule.

Alliance of National Forces for Reform

An alliance formed by legal opposition parties in Egypt, calling for various reforms including an end to the state of emergency and free elections under judicial supervision.

Opposition forces

Groups or movements that are against the current political regime and advocate for political reform.

Article 76

A specific article in the Constitution that was proposed to be changed in order to allow competition in presidential elections.

Unrest and civil activism

An unprecedented level of social and political unrest and activism that occurred in response to the proposed constitutional change.

Muslim Brotherhood

An opposition organization that mobilized thousands of protesters to demand constitutional reforms and the lifting of restrictive emergency laws.

Kefaya movement

A political movement that organized protests demanding an end to Mubarak's rule and the implementation of reform.

Constitutional amendment

Changes made to the Constitution that aimed to maintain the ruling party's monopoly over political life and exclude independent candidates from competing in elections.

Oversight commission

The Committee of Presidential Elections, established to supervise all stages of the electoral process.

Distribution of powers

The allocation of authority and responsibilities among different branches of government, with the president retaining significant powers.

2007 constitutional amendments

Changes made to the Constitution to consolidate executive power, curb the influence of the Muslim Brotherhood, and limit judicial scrutiny of elections.

Erosion of human rights

The amendments were criticized for undermining human rights, including the right to a fair trial and protection against arbitrary arrests and searches.

Gamal Mubarak

The son of President Mubarak, who was being promoted within the ruling party as a potential successor.

Gamal Mubarak's succession

The potential for Gamal Mubarak to become the next president of Egypt despite civil opposition.

Military prerogative

The traditional method of succession in Egypt, where a military leader is chosen as the president.

Structural adjustment program

A program initiated in 1991 by Egypt to lower inflation, decrease the budget deficit, improve the efficiency of the public sector, and privatize public assets.

Gap between rich and poor

The increasing disparity in wealth distribution in Egypt, which contributed to the rise of Islamic militancy and delegitimization of the regime.

Social strikes

Strikes carried out by economically dissatisfied citizens in Egypt, primarily focused on deteriorating wages and salaries.

Ossified economic and political conditions

The stagnation and lack of progress in Egypt's economy and political system.

Egyptian foreign policy under Mubarak

Mubarak's attempts to minimize interactions with Israel publicly while maintaining close cooperation in security matters.

Return to the Arab fold

Egypt's reestablishment of diplomatic relations with Arab and Muslim countries and its role in regional politics.

Role in Arab-Israeli peace process

Egypt's involvement in bilateral negotiations and mediation between Israel and Arab countries in the peace process.

Implementation of the Declaration of Principles

Egypt's hosting of negotiations and involvement in the signing of the agreement to implement the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles.

Bilateral relations

The close consultation and cooperation between two countries, in this case, Egypt and Syria, to promote mutual interests and discuss important issues such as the peace process.

Trilateral summit

A meeting involving three parties, in this case, Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia, to foster economic cooperation and discuss strategies for achieving comprehensive peace in the region.

Economic boycott

A collective decision by Arab states to refuse economic relations with Israel until certain conditions, such as the withdrawal from the Golan Heights, are met.

Pariah

A person or country that is shunned or excluded by others due to their actions or beliefs.

Mediator

A neutral party that helps facilitate negotiations and resolve conflicts between two or more parties.

Roadmap Peace Plan

A plan released by the Quartet (United States, European Union, Russia, and United Nations) to resolve the Palestinian-Israeli conflict in three phases, including Palestinian reform, Israeli withdrawal, and establishment of an interim Palestinian state.

Qualified Industrial Zones (QIZs)

Areas where Egyptian goods gain free access to US markets if a certain percentage of their content originates in Israel.

Arab-Israeli peace process

The ongoing diplomatic efforts to achieve peace and stability between Arab states and Israel.

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