International organizations

Governance

The sum of the many ways individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs. It is a continuing process through which conflicting or diverse interests may be accommodated and cooperative action may be taken. 

Multilateralism

One institutional form that coordinates relations among three or more states on the basis of generalised principles of conduct. 

Three characteristics of IOs

1° Permanent

2° Intergovernmental

3° Autonomous

Permanent character

IOs are material entities which must therefore have a geographical physical location, an internal bureaucracy, a budget and equipment.

Intergovernemental

An IO must be constituted by 3 or more states associated on a voluntary basis through constitutive treaties recognized by int’l law.

Autonomy

An IO must have int’l legal personality. It means it is granted a certain autonomy in the fulfilment of its functions and competencies, but on the other hand, that it can be considered responsible and be sued if it dysfunctions.

Informal club

A regular voluntary gathering of states (BRICS, G20)

Summits/meetings

One-shot gatherings bringing states and sometimes other int’l actors together (COP, Russia-Africa summits)

Int’l regime

Sets of implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures around which actors’ expectations converge in a given area of int’l relations

Controversed cases that must be considered as IOs

1° treaties considered as IOs (NATO, GATT)

2° networks of IOs that are considered as unique IOs (UN, World Bank),

3°n and IOs that have a higher level of supranationality (EU)

Controversed cases that must NOT be considered as IOs

1° int’l institutions that are not intergovernmental (ICRC, FIFA)

2° int’l institutions that have no permanence (i.e. informal clubs, BRICS, G20)

Three criteria to categorize IOs

Membership, type of authority, function

Universal membership

Any state can become a member of the corresponding IOR

Restricted membership

There are criteria for the state to fulfil to become a member of the corresponding IO, be they geographic (EU, ASEAN), religious (Org. of Islamic Cooperation), functional (Nuclear Supplier Group), linguistic (Org. Int. de la Francophonie), economic (WTO, IMF and WB). 

Intergovernmental IOs

IOs with a decentralized power, tightly controlled by their member states. They need the consensus among their MS (i.e. unanimity) to act (NATO, OPEC)

Supranational IOs

IOs to which states have pooled and delegated some authority. Decisions are often adopted on a (simple or qualified) majority basis (UNSC, WB)

Programmatic IOs

IOs setting norms and rules by taking general decisions expressing declarations and principles (UN General Assembly, ILO)

Operational IOs

IOs implementing norms and ruels by producing concrete effects on ground (WB or IMF when they lend money)

Conference diplomacy

Punctual gatherings between state representatives characterised by the determination of interstate relations based on the principl of int’l anarchy, with the goal of solving disputes through diplomacy rather than war. U

Utopian liberalism

Idea that int’l peace is possible through states joining together.

Collective security

Principle according to which a threat to one state is considered a threat to the whole system of states that is organized around this principle.

UN specialised agencies

Former administrative unions which are related to a particular issue (e.g. food and agriculture organization, the ILO)

Stimuli for IO creation (5)

1° war and peace (NATO)

2° industrial expansion/globalization (WHO, ILO)

3° human rights (NATO, UNHR, Council of Europe)

4° economic crises/trade & finance (WTO, IMF)

5° development (WB, UNDP).

Administrative unions

Preliminary forms of IOs which aimed at establishing int’l or worldwide standards (i.e. standardizing) on a variety of topics (transport, communication, health and social regulations) . Their creation is related to practical imperatives which resulted from industrial expansion and the “first globalisation" wave.

Weighting voting systems

A voting system in which different weights or voting power are given to the different states that participate to the vote (e.g. veto power granted to the UNSC permanent members)

Veto power

The capacity to block the adoption of a decision unilaterally, even if a majority of members support it.

Chicken game

A classic model from game theory that illustrates how conflict can arise when two players engage in a confrontation where neither wants to back down, but if neither yields, both lose heavily.

Implications of considering IOs as agents

High level of autonomy, they can influence their MS and are considered as bureaucracies, which are in competition with another. It is in line with constructivism.

Highest int’l civil servants

The Secretary-General of the United Nations, the Secretary-General of NATO, the President of the EU Commission. 

Principal-agent theory

A theory that explains the relation between a represented (the principal) and the representative (the agent) to which some autonomous power is given in order to represent the principal (e.g. IOs staff members (agents) represent the interest of the IO (principal))

Required characteristics of int’l civil servants

Representativeness, independence, and expertise

Representativeness

The int’l civil servants should come from all over the world to represent the world

Independence

The int’l civil servants is supposed to put aside her/his national origins and work in the name of the organization. All int’l civil servants are meant to have a high moral character so as to keep their integrity.

centralised rational choice

Calculating, in the light of the interests of the whole organization, the costs and benefits of all feasible options before selecting the one which best serves those interests. l

Green room proedure.

At the WTO, a procedure by which, during negotiations, those delegations which do notn agree with the others are convened in a separate room, with the goal to then come back to the big group with a constructive proposal. I

Institutional memory

Knowledge and refined perspective acquired through experience by a person holding an institutional position for a sufficiently long period.

Standard operating procedures

Decisions taken by int’l civil servants on a daily basis and through administrative routines, when they decide on the precise details related to all the main decisions taken by int’l organizations.

Bureaucreatic politics

The internal conflicts that may result from the fact that different branches within the administration of political organizations might favour different decisions.

Prisoner’s dilemma

One illustration of game theory, related to behavioralism. It describes a situation in which two players each have two options: the outcome of the situation depends crucially on the simultaneous choice made by the other. But the two cannot communicate nor organize their replies. It is a situation used to describe problems of cooperation in int’l relations.

Neo-realist point of view toward int’l cooperation

Non cooperation is more advantageous for each state taken individually. But cooperation happens because major players force other actors to cooperate.

Neo-liberal of view toward int’l cooperation

Cooperation is advantageous because it creates absolute gains. Yet state do not cooperate instinctively but must be invited to cooperate which is the role of IOs and int’l regimes (the more information is exchanged, the more likely states are to cooperate).

Intergenerational justice

Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Three pillars of sustainable development

Economic development, social progress, environmental protection/enhancement

Three critics of MDGs

1°  donor driven (lacked an inclusive initial consultation),

2° environmental concerns and multidimensional nature of poverty not sufficiently addressed

3° ineffective body of enforcement. 

governance by goal-setting

Mode of governance that focuses on establishing goals and associated targets without including explicit means of implementation. (>< governance by rule setting)

High level political forum

An annual intergovernmental conference gathering high-level political representatives and representatives of the civil society to check SDG implementation through voluntary national reports. 

Two short coming of the High Level Political Forum

1° Lack of effectivity due to a weak peer-learning mechanism (gvts decide whether and what they submit)

2° Further development of the HLPF is blocked due to the fear of the governments of being publicly shamed

Orchestration

A concept used to describe the role of IOs. It staters that an IO is a principal actor with limited resources (the orchestrator) that seeks to mobilize and facilitate the voluntary cooperation of third-party actors (intermediaries, i.e. states) to achieve shared objectives (targets, i.e. SDGs)

Limitations of the SDG design

1° A siloed approach, conflicting goals may cause tradeoffs (an improvement in one goal will cause a worsening of the situation regarding another goal)

2° focus on neoliberal SD

3° no enforcement mechanism as it is a non-binding agreement. 

Required reforms regarding SDGs

High income countries should commit to more ambitious policies, more dynamic nature of the goals, stronger legal commitments (through a binding instrument among likeminded countries), stronger institutional support and governance mechanisms. 

Discursive, normative and institutional effects (in SDGs)

1° Discursive effects: Changes in the way actors discuss and understand sustainable development.

2° Normative effects: Adjustments in laws, regulations, and policies aligning with the SDGs.

3° Institutional effects: Creation or realignment of institutions to support SDG implementation. 

Constructivism

 Argues that the identities and interests of states are constructed through international interactions and through the ideas that states have about themselves and their place in the world. State identity is contextual. 

Culture of anarchy/systemic int’l culture

Shared ideas and perceptions of states about their identities (be it their own or those of other states) and about the meaning and consequences of the anarchical nature of the int’l system.

Three types of culture of anarchy

1° Hobbesian: states conceive themselves as enemies to each other. They must resort to offensive politics.

2°Lockean: states conceive themselves as rivals. They recognise each other’s right to exist but still have to wage limited war against each other. 

3° Kantian: states conceive one another as friends. They exclude violence and try to enhance mutual help. 

M. Finnemore’s constructivism

The norms produced by the int’l society can have the ability to shape the interests of states. IOs shape national policies by transmitting these norms to the states. 

Global values

Globally shared beliefs about a preferable world

Constructive ambiguity

The deliberate use of vague or ambiguous language in diplomatic agreements or negotiations to allow multiple interpretations, thereby helping conflicting parties reach a deal or avoid confrontation.

Social innovation

A strategy to foster development and growth by replacing governmental intervention with the empowerment of citizens and enterprises.

Three features of social innovation

1° Non-tangible outcomes: SI enhances or produces social capital

2° Process dimension

3° Long-term, broad and innovative solutions

Social capital

Networks, together with shared norms, values and understandings that facilitate cooperation within or among groups

Three steps of the SI process

1° Problematization: identification of a need by a small group of actors, triggered by an internal/external impetus.

2° Expression of interests: other actors decide to join the group action as they perceive participation as a source of personal gains 

3° Delineation and  coordination: mutual learning and know-how exchange occurs

Types of factors impacting the success of SI

1° Factors important for the success of the overall innovation process (main ones = diffusion of information and perceived newness)

2° Factors influencing a social innovation network outside the innovation process itself (= room of manoeuvre), external to the actors involved. 

3° Factors influencing the participation process underlying a social innovation.

Three categories of social innovation in rural contexts

1° Innovation within private and community-run organizations

2° Innovation within policy-making processes.  

3° Innovation through cooperation projects

Goals of peacekeeping operations

1° Ensuring peace and stability/preventing a regionalisation of the conflict

2° Protecting civilians

3° Retreating after peace process is completed, or when asked to. 

Decoupling

A phenomenon occuring when an organization is pressured to take action that are not consistent with its internal politics and practices, which causes the organization to favour symbolic actions over actual practices with long-term effects.

2 reasons why IOs tend to exaggerate their effects

1° Member states justify their participation by showing that collective action leads to concrete results (< IOs as structures)

2°  IOs invest time and resources in communicating about their effects as part to their survival strategy (< IOs as agents)

IO effectiveness

The general measure of the effects of an IO. It relates, on the one hand, to the adoption of rules and regulations and commitment of the states to respect them (output), and on the other hand, to concrete compliance by the states to the rules (outcome)

Efficiency of an IO

Efficiency: impact of the IO/whether it fulfils its goals. 

5 dimensions of policy output

1° Volume (number of decisions in a time period)

2° Orientation (distribution across issue areas in a time period)

3° Type (regulatory, admin, constitutional, etc.)

4° Instrument (legally binding or not)

5° Target (who the policy is aimed at)

Compliance

All the behavioural changes of states that are visible due to the existence of the IO. 

Enforcement

The means of action used to ensure compliance of state members who fail to live up to their obligations. 

Two advantages of the dispute settlement body of the WTO

1° It is a strong enforcement mechanism (compensation and retaliation can be imposed, binding on states)

2° it is well designed

Three weaknesses of WTO’s dispute settlement body

1° Very lengthy procedure
2° Access lacks fairness 

3° The burden of proof lies on the defendant

Operative effects

Practical effects linked to the implementation of norms and rules by a given IO

Normative effects

The production by IOs of norms, i.e. shared expectations about appropriate behaviour held by a community of actors.

Two main types of normative effects

1° Persuasion: the act of presenting values to an audience so as to try to influence policy choices.

2° Norm entrapment: a situation where states or actors become constrained by the norms they have previously endorsed or promoted, because they fear that their own statements may be used against them to attain their reputation/legitimacy (the latter strategy is known as rhetorical entrapment.

Three mechanisms used by the ILO to ensure compliance

1° Tripartism (three constituencies of members represented within each national delegation – state, workers, employers)

2° Voluntarism: adoption of ILO convention is on a voluntary basis. Tradeoff btw rate of adoption and rate of compliance. 

3° Peer pressure

Conditionality

The conditioning (by an supranational entity with a certain amount of financial means) of a benefit to the respect of some rules or to the fulfilment of some goals

Socialization (in IOs)

A process through which IO actions prompt states to change their values, norms, and identities, with the aim is that ultimately, targeted states consider given values or norms as part of their very identity or as self-evident.

Three UN systems

1° The community of member states

2° The bureaucrats and administrative machinery of the UN

3° Non-state actors, i.e. civil society organisations

Non-state actors

All entities and persons having agency on the int’l scene that are not governmental nor intergovernmental

5 factors fostering interactions between IOs and CSOs

1° Economic neoliberalism

2° Participatory paradigm (linked to legitimacy concerns)

3° Program effectiveness (funding + reach)

4° Need for better coordination

5° Budgetary reasons (linked to autonomy concern)

Hybrid peace operations

Operations that bring together two or more int’l actors that operate simultaneosuly or sequentially and the activities of which imply a certain degree of inter-institutional cooperation. Most of them have in common that the UNSC has given legal authorization to undertake the mission.

Three types of hybrid operations

1° Parallel operations: two or more IOs are deployed simultaneously with no or limited formal connections

2° Sequential operations: plural IOs intervene one after another (division of labour)

3° Simultaneous operations: plural IOs deployed simultaneously and working together with a clear division of tasks and authority. 

Three advantages of hybrid operations

1° They enable burden/resource-sharing 

2° They bring flexibility and selectivity, as each IO is able to intervene within its area of specialisation 

3° They are strategically better conceived

4 drawbacks of hybrid operations

1° They require a certain institutionalisation of interventions

2° State politics are still at play, and may even be more intense

3° Further coherence is needed so that the different interventions do not contradict

4° Trust is not always easy to maintain between the partners

Regime complexe

A network of three or more int’l regimes that relate to a common subject-matter, exhibit overlapping membership, and generate substantive, normative or operative interactions recognized as potentially problematic whether or not they are managed effectively.

Four stages of development of regime complexes

1° atomisation: the regimes are isolated from one another

2° competition: the regimes start working jointly

3°: specialisation: a sort of division of labour is divided upon between the regimes

4° integration: the regime complex becomes unified and reaches internal stability