Foundations and Key Concepts of the Upaniṣads & Early Indian Philosophy

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Vocabulary flashcards covering major terms, texts, rituals, doctrines, and philosophical ideas mentioned in the provided lecture extracts on the Upaniṣads and early Indian thought.

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46 Terms

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Oxford World’s Classics

A series of scholarly editions that make world literature—including texts like the Upaniṣads—available with critical introductions and notes.

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Upaniṣads

Ancient Sanskrit texts forming the philosophical end of the Vedas, exploring ultimate reality (Brahman), the self (Ātman), and the nature of the cosmos.

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Vedas

The four foundational collections of ancient Hindu sacred knowledge: Ṛg-, Sāma-, Yajur- and Atharva-Veda.

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Ṛgveda

The oldest Veda, consisting mainly of hymns (ṛc) praising deities and containing early cosmological speculation.

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Sāmaveda

Veda of melodies and chants; its priests (Udgātṛs) sing Sāman hymns used in Soma sacrifices.

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Yajurveda

Veda of ritual formulas and prose mantras recited by the Adhvaryu priest while performing sacrifice.

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Atharvaveda

Collection of charms, spells, and philosophical hymns; recognized later as the fourth Veda.

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Saṁhitā

The mantra collection section of each Veda, made up of hymns or chants used in ritual.

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Brāhmaṇa

Prose texts attached to each Saṁhitā that explain and prescribe Vedic sacrifices and their cosmic correspondences.

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Āraṇyaka

‘Forest books’ that speculate on the inner meaning of rituals; transitional to the Upaniṣads.

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Brahman (metaphysical)

The absolute, imperishable reality underlying and supporting the universe; often described as beyond being and non-being.

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Ātman

The innermost self or essence; ultimately identified with Brahman in many Upaniṣadic passages.

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Sāman

A melodic chant of the Sāmaveda, central to Soma rituals and heavily analyzed in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad.

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Udgītha (High Chant)

The principal Sāman syllable ‘OM,’ considered the essence of all sound and a key focus of Upaniṣadic speculation.

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Gayatrī (metre)

A Vedic poetic metre of 24 syllables; personified as a goddess and treated as the essence of speech and the earth.

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Triṣṭubh (metre)

A Vedic poetic metre of 44 syllables, linked in Chāndogya Upaniṣad with the Rudras and the mid-life ‘midday pressing’ of Soma.

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Jagatī (metre)

A Vedic poetic metre of 48 syllables, connected with the Ādityas and the final 'third pressing' of Soma in life-span allegory.

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Soma (sacrifice)

A ritual offering and deified plant/juice central to Vedic liturgy; its three pressings are paralleled with stages of human life.

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Chāndogya Upaniṣad

A major Sāmaveda-linked Upaniṣad exploring correspondences of chant, cosmos and self; source of ‘tat tvam asi.’

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Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad

A lengthy Yajurvedic Upaniṣad that develops doctrines of Brahman, Ātman, and the ‘inner controller’ (Antaryāmin).

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Taittirīya Upaniṣad

Upaniṣad discussing layers of the person (food, breath, mind, intellect, bliss) and the sound OM.

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Kena Upaniṣad

Short Upaniṣad asking ‘by whom’ is mind and breath directed, stressing Brahman beyond sense and thought.

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Kaṭha Upaniṣad

Dialogue between Naciketas and Yama on death, the self, and liberation; famous for chariot allegory.

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Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad

Theistic Upaniṣad affirming a personal Lord (Īśa) who rules the perishable and imperishable and frees the soul.

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Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad

Upaniṣad distinguishing higher (parā) and lower (aparā) knowledge and using two-bird allegory for self and Self.

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Praśna Upaniṣad

‘Questions’ Upaniṣad in which six seekers ask Sage Pippalāda about prāṇa, OM, and the paths after death.

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Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad

Shortest principal Upaniṣad; analyzes OM into waking, dreaming, deep sleep, and the fourth (turīya) state.

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Īśā Upaniṣad

Concise poetic Upaniṣad opening with ‘All this is for dwelling by the Lord (Īśa);’ blends action and renunciation.

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Antaryāmin (Inner Controller)

Upaniṣadic concept of a hidden ruler within earth, gods, beings and senses, unseen yet omnipresent.

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Prāṇa

Vital breath or life-force; considered one of the supreme functions and often equated with cosmic power.

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Vasus

Group of eight deities; in Chāndogya Upaniṣad linked symbolically with the morning Soma pressing (ages 0-24).

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Rudras

Eleven deities associated with storms; linked with the Triṣṭubh metre and middle life stage in allegorical sacrifice.

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Ādityas

Twelve solar deities; connected to the Jagatī metre and final life stage in Chāndogya’s sacrifice-as-lifespan analogy.

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Devayāna (Path of the Gods)

Upaniṣadic route taken by ascetics and meditators after death: flame → day → bright fortnight → northern solstice → sun → moon → lightning → Brahman.

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Pitṛyāna (Path of the Fathers)

Route of ritualists and donors: smoke → night → dark fortnight → southern solstice → ancestors → return to earth via rain and food.

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Doctrine of Five Fires

Chāndogya teaching that cosmic processes (heaven, rain-cloud, earth, man, woman) are successive ‘fires’ transforming offerings into human birth.

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Tantra / Āgama

Non-Vedic revelatory texts of Śaiva, Śākta and Vaiṣṇava traditions, prescribing monotheistic ritual, yoga and meditation.

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Smārta Brahmanism

Mainstream orthodox Hinduism that reveres the Vedas and permits worship of multiple deities within a Vedic framework.

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Bhakti

Devotional religiosity centered on personal relationship with a chosen deity; later systematized in Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita Vedānta.

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Tat Tvam Asi

‘That Thou Art’—Mahāvākya of Chāndogya Upaniṣad declaring identity of individual self with ultimate reality.

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OM (Praṇava)

Sacred syllable seen as essence of the Vedas, the universe, and consciousness; used for meditation on Brahman.

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Metre (Chandas)

Syllabic pattern of Vedic verses (e.g., Gāyatrī, Triṣṭubh, Jagatī); each linked with deities and cosmic functions.

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Karma (in Vedic/Upaniṣadic sense)

Ritual action whose precise performance sustains cosmic order and influences future birth and experience.

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Śramaṇa

Renouncer or ascetic who abandons household ritual to pursue liberation through knowledge, meditation, or austerity.

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Brahmanism

Religious culture centered on Brahmin priesthood, Vedic ritual, social hierarchy (varṇa) and the authority of revealed scripture.

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Bhūḥ, Bhuvaḥ, Svaḥ

The three sacred utterances representing earth, atmosphere, and heaven; invoked for protection in Chāndogya Upaniṣad.