1b - Variety of Living Organisms

Plants

植物 (zhíwù) Multicellular; cells have chloroplasts for photosynthesis and cellulose cell walls; store carbohydrates as starch or sucrose.

Animals

动物 (dòngwù) Multicellular; no chloroplasts (no photosynthesis) and no cell walls; usually have nervous systems and can move; store carbohydrates as glycogen.

Fungi

真菌 (zhēnjūn) Cannot photosynthesize; body often a mycelium of hyphae (some single-celled); chitin cell walls; feed by saprotrophic nutrition (external digestion).

Bacteria

细菌 (xìjūn) Microscopic, single-celled; have a cell wall (not cellulose), no nucleus but have a circular chromosome and plasmids; some photosynthesize.

Protoctists

原生生物 (yuánshēng shēngwù) Mostly single-celled; a diverse group that doesn't fit neatly into other kingdoms; includes animal-like (e.g., Amoeba) and plant-like (e.g., Chlorella) forms.

Viruses

病毒 (bìngdú) Non-living particles, smaller than bacteria; parasitic, only reproduce inside living host cells; no cellular structure, just a protein coat and DNA or RNA.

Pathogen

病原体 (bìngyuántǐ) An organism or microorganism (like a bacterium, virus, or fungus) that can cause disease.

Chitin

（真菌细胞壁的）几丁质 ((zhēnjūn xìbāobì de) jǐdīngzhì) / 甲壳素 (jiǎké sù) A strong, protective polysaccharide that forms the cell walls of fungi (and the exoskeletons of arthropods).

Hyphae (singular: Hypha)

菌丝 (jūnsī) Thread-like filaments that make up the body (mycelium) of most multicellular fungi. They grow and branch, absorbing nutrients from the environment.

Prokaryote

原核生物 (yuánhé shēngwù) / 原核细胞 (yuánhé xìbāo) An organism (like bacteria) whose cells lack a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Genetic material is usually a single circular chromosome in the cytoplasm.

Eukaryote

真核生物 (zhēnhé shēngwù) / 真核细胞 (zhēnhé xìbāo)  An organism (like plants, animals, fungi, protoctists) whose cells contain a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Capsule

(细菌）荚膜 ((xìjūn) jiámó) A slimy protective layer found outside the cell wall of some bacteria; can help protect against desiccation or phagocytosis.

Flagellum

（细菌）鞭毛 ((xìjūn) biānmáo) A long, whip-like appendage used for motility (movement) in some bacteria.

Binary Fission

二分裂 (èrfēnliè) The asexual method of reproduction used by bacteria, where one cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells.

Heterotrophic

异养的 (yìyǎng de) Mode of nutrition where organisms obtain organic compounds (food) by consuming other organisms or their products (e.g., animals, fungi).

Autotrophic

自养的 (zìyǎng de) Mode of nutrition where organisms can produce their own organic compounds (food) from inorganic sources, usually using light energy (photosynthesis) or chemical energy (chemosynthesis) (e.g., plants, some bacteria).

Multicellular

多细胞的 (duōxìbāo de) Describes an organism made up of many cells, often with different types of cells specialized for different functions (e.g., plants, animals, most fungi).

Mycelium

菌丝体 (jūnsītǐ) The vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Often hidden in the substrate (e.g., soil, wood).

Nucleoid

拟核 (nǐhé) / 核区 (héqū) The region within a prokaryotic cell (e.g., bacterium) that contains the main genetic material (circular chromosome), not enclosed by a membrane.

Peptidoglycan

（细菌细胞壁的）肽聚糖 ((xìjūn xìbāobì de) tàijùtáng) A polymer unique to bacterial cell walls, providing strength and rigidity. (Different from plant cell walls (cellulose) or fungal cell walls (chitin)).

Pili (singular: Pilus)

（细菌）菌毛 ((xìjūn) jūnmáo) Hair-like appendages on the surface of many bacteria. Shorter than flagella; can be involved in attachment to surfaces or other cells, and in DNA transfer (conjugation) via sex pili.

Plasmids

（细菌）质粒 ((xìjūn) zhìlì) Small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecules found in the cytoplasm of bacteria, separate from the main bacterial chromosome. Often carry genes for traits like antibiotic resistance or toxin production.

Saprotrophic

腐生的 (fǔshēng de) / 腐生营养 (fǔshēng yíngyǎng) A type of heterotrophic nutrition where organisms (typically fungi and some bacteria) feed on dead or decaying organic matter by secreting digestive enzymes externally and then absorbing the soluble products.