Social Psychology and Personality Theories Overview

Attributions

how ppl explain behv & mental processes of themselves & others

Dispositional attribution

person's internal qualities -personality

Situational attribution

external circumstances

Attribution theory

we explain behaviors by crediting the situation or the person's internal disposition (personality)

Fundamental attribution error

Tendency to blame a person's disposition (personality) and not consider the situation

Actor-observer bias

when its others - blame the person, when its you, blame the situation

Self-serving bias

self only - our successes are bc we're awesome, our failures are someone else's fault

Self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Social comparison

we evaluate ourselves based on comparisons to society and social circles

Upward comparison

compare to ppl you think are better than you

Downward comparison

compare to someone you think is worse off than you

Relative deprivation

judge what we are lacking relative to others

Explanatory Style

how ppl explain good and bad events in their lives and others - either optimistic (pos) or pessimistic (neg)

External locus of control

chance / outside forces control your fate

Internal locus

control your own fate

Mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

Stereotype

generalized concept about a group (a label)

Prejudice

neg.

Reaction towards a person/group

a belief/emotion without any advance experience with that group

Discrimination

different treatment of a person/group than how you would treat others

Implicit attitudes

unconscious bias that leads to discrimination

Ingroup bias

tendency to favor our own group

Ethnocentrism

tendency to see your own group as more important than others

Outgroup homogeneity bias

perception that out-group members are similar, while the in-group members are diverse

Just-world phenomenon

tendency for people to believe that the world is just and therefore people get what they deserve

Belief perseverance

stick to your original belief even when given evidence to disprove it

Cognitive dissonance

two opposing thoughts conflict with each other, causing discomfort, which makes us find ways to justify the situation

Social norms

define expectations and roles for individuals and social situations

Social influence theory

people's thoughts and actions are influenced by others

Normative social influence

we conform to gain approval or to not stand out from the group

Informational social influence

we conform to others because we think their opinions must be right

Elaboration likelihood model

two ways to persuade

Central route to persuasion

change people's attitudes through logical arguments and explanations, leading to long term behavior change

Peripheral route to persuasion

change people's attitudes through incidental cues, leading to temporary behavior changes

Halo effect

overall impression of a person/thing is influenced by a single positive trait or characteristic

Foot in the door phenomenon

complying with a small request then leads to going along with a larger request

Door in the face phenomenon

a large request is turned down, leading you to be more likely to comply with a small request

Conformity

change in a person's behavior to more closely match the group

Obedience

complying with an order or command

Obedience

The act of following orders from an authority figure, often leading to actions contrary to personal morals.

Proximity of authority figure

The physical closeness of an authority figure, which can increase the likelihood of obedience.

Legitimacy or prestige of the figure

The perceived authority and respect associated with an individual, influencing obedience.

Distance from the victim

The physical or emotional separation from the person affected by one's actions, impacting moral decision-making.

Role models for defiance

Individuals who demonstrate resistance to authority, potentially encouraging others to do the same.

Collectivistic culture

A culture that emphasizes social and group ties, leading to higher levels of conformity and obedience.

Individualistic culture

A culture that promotes individuality, resulting in lower levels of conformity and obedience.

Group polarization

The phenomenon where group discussions lead to stronger opinions among members who already share the same viewpoint.

Groupthink

A psychological phenomenon where the desire for group harmony results in poor decision-making and the suppression of dissenting viewpoints.

Bystander effect

A social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when other people are present.

Diffusion of responsibility

A concept related to the bystander effect where individuals feel less personal responsibility to act when others are present.

Deindividuation

A loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that promote anonymity, often leading to impulsive behavior.

Social loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

Social facilitation

The tendency to perform better on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

False-consensus effect

The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

Superordinate goals

Goals that require cooperation between two or more groups, fostering unity and cohesiveness.

Social trap

A situation where individuals prioritize their own needs over the group's needs, leading to negative outcomes.

Industrial / Organizational Psychology

The study of human behavior in the workplace, focusing on best practices and relationships within organizations.

Altruism (prosocial behavior)

The selfless concern for the well-being of others, often leading to helping behaviors.

Social reciprocity norm

The expectation that helping others will lead to being helped in return.

Social responsibility norm

The expectation to act in ways that benefit the community and promote the common good.

Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)

A psychological study where participants were assigned roles as guards or prisoners, leading to extreme behavior changes.

Psychodynamic explanation

Personality is largely unconscious, and shaped from early childhood experiences.

id

Our hidden true wants and desires (devil on your shoulder).

superego

Our moral conscious (angel on your shoulder).

ego

Part of the mind/personality that deals with everyday reality - what people see - mediates between the id and superego (it's you!).

Defense mechanisms

Ego's attempt to protect you from threats.

Repression

Push memories back into the unconscious mind (e.g., sexual abuse is too traumatic to deal with, so you repress it).

Regression

Go into an earlier development period in the face of stress (e.g., during exam week you start to suck your thumb).

Denial

Refuse to acknowledge reality (e.g., refuse to believe you have cancer).

Rationalization

Justify something happening (e.g., don't get into your college - justify it was a crap college anyway).

Displacement

Take feelings out on something else (e.g., can't tell a teacher, go home and yell at the dog).

Projection

Attribute personal shortcomings & faults onto others (e.g., a man who wants to have an affair accuses his wife of one).

Reaction formation

Transform unacceptable motive into its opposite (e.g., insecure about masculinity becomes extra aggressive).

Sublimation

Replace unacceptable impulse with a socially acceptable one (e.g., a person who likes fighting becomes a professional kickboxer).

Projective Tests

Ambiguous stimuli shown to 'reveal your unconscious' - inkblots and thematic apperception tests. Highly subjective, not considered reliable or valid.

Traits

Enduring personality characteristics; people can be described by these - have strong or weak tendencies.

BIG FIVE personality

A model describing personality traits using the acronym OCEAN.

Openness

High levels = imaginative, independent, like variety; low = not open to change.

Conscientiousness

High levels = organized, careful, disciplined; low = disorganized and messy.

Extraversion

High levels = sociable, likes being center of attention, meeting new people; opposite is introversion: shy, timid, reserved.

Agreeableness

High levels = soft-hearted, trusting, helpful; low levels = suspicious, not a team player.

Neuroticism (emotional stability)

High levels = mood swings, easy to stress; low = emotionally stable, handles stress.

Personality inventories

Special name for a test that uses factor analysis: statistical procedure used to identify similar components.

Humanistic explanation

Emphasized personal growth and free will.

Self-actualization

Fulfilling your full potential as a person - self-actualized people are self-aware, caring, spontaneous, open, secure.

Unconditional positive regard

Attitude of acceptance regardless of circumstances.

Social-cognitive explanation

Behavior is a complex interaction of inner processes and environmental influence, which influences personality.

RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM

Interaction of behavior, cognitions, and environment make up you.

Self-efficacy

Belief that one can succeed, influencing actions.

Self-concept

How you view yourself in relation to others.

Instinct Theory

Innate, fixed patterns in response to stimuli.

Drive Reduction

Physiological need creates aroused tension that motivates satisfaction.

Homeostasis

Equilibrium that drives motivation.

Approach Conflict Theory

Conflict where you have to choose between two positive outcomes.

Approach-approach conflict

Win-win situation; choosing between two favorite options.

Approach-avoidance conflict

Win-lose situation; outcome has both positive and negative aspects.

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Lose-lose situation; both outcomes are undesirable.

Self-Determination Theory

Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic.

Intrinsic motivation

Inner motivation; doing something because you like it.

Extrinsic motivation

Motivation to obtain a reward.