Comprehensive Guide to U.S. Legislative, Executive, and Judicial Processes

Filibuster

A Senate procedure in which a senator or group delays legislative action by speaking for an extended period.

Cloture

The Senate procedure used to end a filibuster and bring a bill to a final vote, requiring 60 votes.

Congressional Oversight of the Bureaucracy

Congress's authority to monitor federal agencies and ensure they enforce laws as intended.

Logrolling

The practice of lawmakers trading votes to secure mutual legislative benefits.

Pocket Veto

Occurs when the president does not sign a bill within 10 days and Congress adjourns, causing the bill to die.

Discharge Petition

A House procedure that forces a bill out of committee and onto the floor for a vote, requiring 218 signatures.

Reapportionment

The redistribution of the 435 House seats among the states every 10 years after the Census.

Gerrymandering

The intentional drawing of congressional districts to benefit a political party, group, or incumbent.

Qualifications: President

Must be at least 35, a natural-born citizen, and have lived in the U.S. for 14 years.

Qualifications: Senate

Senators must be 30, U.S. citizens for 9 years, and residents of their states.

Qualifications: House of Representatives

House members must be 25, citizens for 7 years, and residents of their states.

Qualifications: Supreme Court Justice

The Constitution sets no formal requirements for justices.

Responsibilities of the Vice President

Serves as President of the Senate and may cast tie-breaking votes.

U.S. v. Nixon (1974)

A Supreme Court case that limited executive privilege and strengthened judicial oversight over the executive branch.

Order of Presidential Succession

The order established by the Presidential Succession Act: VP → Speaker of the House → President Pro Tempore → Cabinet secretaries.

25th Amendment

Clarifies presidential disability and succession procedures.

Executive Agreements

Foreign policy commitments made by the president without Senate approval.

Executive Orders

Directives issued by the president that manage operations within the executive branch.

Line-Item Veto

This power allows an executive to strike specific parts of a bill without rejecting the entire bill.

Clinton v. New York (1998)

The Supreme Court ruled the line-item veto unconstitutional, holding it violated the Presentment Clause.

Impeachment

The constitutional process through which the House formally charges federal officials, including the president, with misconduct.

Pardon

A pardon fully forgives a federal crime and restores rights such as voting and gun ownership.

Commutation

A commutation reduces a sentence but does not erase the conviction itself.

Reprieve

A reprieve delays punishment, often used before executions.

Clemency

Clemency is the general umbrella term for presidential mercy: pardons, commutations, and reprieves.

Speaker of the House

The most powerful leader in Congress, elected by the majority party, controlling the legislative agenda.

Majority Leader

Directs the legislative priorities of the majority party in both chambers, scheduling bills for debate.

President of the Senate (Vice President)

The Vice President constitutionally serves as President of the Senate, casting tie-breaking votes.

President Pro Tempore

The longest-serving senator from the majority party, largely ceremonial today and third in the presidential line of succession.

Whips

Enforce party discipline by counting votes and persuading members to support party positions.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

Assists the president in preparing the federal budget and oversees agency spending.

Office of the National Security Council (NSC)

Advises the president on national security, foreign policy, and military matters.

Fiscal Policy

The government's use of taxing and spending to influence the economy.

Delegate

Votes exactly according to the preferences of constituents, prioritizing representation over personal judgment.

Trustee

Uses their own judgment and expertise when voting, even if constituents disagree.

Politico

Blends delegate and trustee approaches, acting as delegates on high-visibility issues and as trustees on complex matters.

Partisan

Follows the preferences of their political party, with party-line voting growing as polarization increases.

Pendleton Act (1883)

Created the modern merit-based civil service, ending the spoils system and establishing exams and protections for bureaucrats.

Federal Employees

Most work in the executive branch, particularly in large agencies such as the Department of Defense and Department of Veterans Affairs.

Government Corporations

Federally owned businesses that provide public services with fees (e.g., USPS, Amtrak, FDIC).

Iron Triangle

A stable, mutually beneficial relationship between a congressional committee, a bureaucratic agency, and an interest group.

First Two Original Cabinet Positions

The Department of State and the Department of the Treasury.

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

Agencies that directly support the president, including OMB, NSC, and the Council of Economic Advisers.

16th Amendment

Gives Congress the power to levy an income tax.

11th Amendment

Limits federal lawsuits against states and grants states sovereign immunity from certain types of legal claims.

17th Amendment

Established the direct election of senators by the people instead of state legislatures.

Article I

Establishes the legislative branch, creates the House and Senate, and outlines congressional powers.

Article II

Establishes the executive branch and outlines presidential powers.

Article III

Creates the judicial branch and establishes the Supreme Court.

Exclusive Powers of the Senate

Confirms presidential appointments, ratifies treaties, and conducts impeachment trials.

Exclusive Powers of the House

Initiates all revenue (tax) bills and has the sole power of impeachment.

Roles of the President

Includes Chief of State, Chief Executive, Chief Diplomat, Commander in Chief, Chief Legislator, Chief Administrator, Chief of Party, and Chief Economist.

Terms of Office

President: 4 years, maximum of 2 terms; House Members: 2-year terms; Senators: 6-year terms.

Roles of the Vice President

Breaks Senate ties, advises the president, represents the administration abroad, and takes over if the president is incapacitated.

Imperial Presidency

Refers to a presidency that exceeds constitutional limits or dominates the other branches.

Executive Privilege

Allows presidents to withhold information from Congress or courts for confidentiality or national security reasons.

Congressional Earmarks

Specific funding provisions directing money to a project or district, often inserted into appropriations bills.

Pork Barrel Spending

Government funding that benefits only a small district or group, often used to gain political support.

How a Bill Becomes a Law

A bill is introduced, goes to committee, subcommittee hearings and markup, full committee, House Rules Committee (House only), floor debate, vote, sent to other chamber, conference committee to reconcile differences, final vote, president signs or vetoes, Congress may override with 2/3 vote.