IAL Psychology Unit 2 - Learning theories & development

Definitions, including some research methods

What is classical conditioning?

A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired.

Who is the key psychologist for classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov.

What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

What is an unconditioned response (UCR)?

The natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.

What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?

A stimulus that initially produces no specific response.

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association, triggers a response.

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

What is stimulus generalisation?

Responding to similar stimuli in the same way as the conditioned stimulus.

What is stimulus discrimination?

The ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

The disappearance of a conditioned response when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a delay.

What is operant conditioning?

A type of learning where behavior is controlled by consequences.

Who developed operant conditioning?

B.F. Skinner.

What is positive reinforcement?

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

What is negative reinforcement?

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

What is positive punishment?

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

What is negative punishment?

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

What are reinforcement schedules?

Rules that determine how often a behavior is reinforced.

What is Social Learning Theory?

Learning through observation and imitation of others.

Who proposed Social Learning Theory?

Albert Bandura.

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Learning through observing the consequences of others' behavior.

What are the four processes of SLT?

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

What role does the prefrontal cortex play in aggression?

Involved in self-control and decision making; low activity linked to aggression.

What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction of the outcome of a study.

What is an independent variable (IV)?

The variable that is manipulated.

What is a dependent variable (DV)?

The variable that is measured.

What is the Mann-Whitney U test used for?

Comparing differences between two independent groups.

When is the Chi-squared test used?

For examining relationships between categorical variables.

What is a correlation?

A measure of the relationship between two variables.

What does 'significance' mean in statistics?

That a result is unlikely due to chance.

What side of the nature-nurture debate is Learning Theory on?

Nurture.

What is reductionism?

Breaking complex behavior into simpler components.

Why is Learning Theory considered reductionist?

It ignores biological and cognitive factors.

What is a criticism of the Learning Approach?

It overlooks internal mental processes and biology.

What is a primary reinforcer?

A reinforcer that satisfies a basic biological need, such as food or water.

What is a secondary reinforcer?

A reinforcer that has no biological value but becomes reinforcing through association with a primary reinforcer, like money or praise.

What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?

A reinforcement is given every time the desired behavior occurs.

What is a partial reinforcement schedule?

A reinforcement is given only some of the time the desired behavior occurs.

What is a fixed-ratio schedule?

Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses.

What is a variable-ratio schedule?

Reinforcement is given after a changing number of responses.

What is a fixed-interval schedule?

Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time has passed.

What is a variable-interval schedule?

Reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time.

What are the four stages of observational learning in SLT?

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

What is modelling in SLT?

Demonstrating a behavior that can be observed and imitated by others.

What is imitation in SLT?

Copying the behavior of a role model.

What is identification in SLT?

When an observer relates to a model and wants to be like them.

What is vicarious reinforcement in SLT?

Learning through the observation of the consequences others face for their behavior.

What is continuous reinforcement?

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs, leading to rapid learning but also rapid extinction.

What is partial (intermittent) reinforcement?

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time, resulting in slower learning but greater resistance to extinction.

What are the four types of partial reinforcement schedules?

Fixed-ratio, Variable-ratio, Fixed-interval, Variable-interval.

What is a fixed-ratio schedule?

Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses.

What is a variable-ratio schedule?

Reinforcement is given after a changing number of responses.

What is a fixed-interval schedule?

Reinforcement is given after a fixed amount of time.

What is a variable-interval schedule?

Reinforcement is given after varying amounts of time.

What are the four mediational processes in SLT?

Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

What makes someone a role model in SLT?

High status, attractiveness, similarity (e.g., gender), and being perceived as successful.

What is identification in SLT?

When an observer relates to a role model and wants to be like them.

What is systematic desensitization?

A therapy to reduce phobic responses through gradual exposure and relaxation.

What are the steps of systematic desensitization?

Relaxation training, fear hierarchy, and gradual exposure.

What are the three structures of personality?

Id, ego, and superego.

What does the id represent?

Primitive desires operating on the pleasure principle.

What does the ego represent?

Rational part balancing id and superego; operates on reality principle.

What does the superego represent?

Moral conscience incorporating societal rules.

What is the role of the unconscious mind?

Stores thoughts and desires not accessible consciously but influencing behavior.

What are defense mechanisms?

Unconscious strategies used by the ego to manage anxiety.

Name some common defense mechanisms.

Repression, denial, projection, displacement, regression, sublimation, rationalization.

What are Freud's psychosexual stages and their age ranges?

Oral (0–1), Anal (1–3), Phallic (3–6), Latency (6–puberty), Genital (puberty+).

What is free association?

A method where patients speak freely to uncover unconscious thoughts.

What is dream analysis?

Interpreting dreams to reveal unconscious desires and conflicts.

What is transference?

Patient projects feelings about important people onto the therapist.

What is countertransference?

Therapist projects feelings back onto the patient.

What is object relations theory?

Focuses on how early relationships shape psychological development.

What are the six types of observations?

Naturalistic, Controlled, Covert, Overt, Participant, Non-participant.

How can validity be improved in observations?

Use ecological settings, reduce observer effects, and standardize procedures.

How can reliability be improved in observations?

Use inter-observer checks and define behaviors clearly.

What are the steps of content analysis?

Sampling, categorising, tallying, and analysis.

What is repression?

Unconsciously blocking unacceptable thoughts or feelings from awareness.

What is denial?

Refusing to accept reality or facts because they are too uncomfortable.

What is projection?

Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else.

What is displacement?

Redirecting emotions from a threatening target to a safer one.

What is regression?

Reverting to childlike behaviors when faced with stress.

What is sublimation?

Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions.

What is rationalization?

Justifying behaviors or feelings with logical but false explanations.

What happens in the oral stage (0–1 year)?

Pleasure focuses on the mouth, such as sucking and biting.

What happens in the anal stage (1–3 years)?

Pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder control; conflict over toilet training.

What happens in the phallic stage (3–6 years)?

Pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with Oedipus/Electra complex.

What happens in the latency stage (6–puberty)?

Sexual feelings are dormant; focus on social and intellectual development.

What happens in the genital stage (puberty onward)?

Maturation of sexual interests and establishment of mature relationships.

What is ecological validity?

The extent to which research findings can be generalized to real-life settings.

What is inter-rater reliability?

The degree of agreement between different observers recording the same event.

What is operationalization?

Defining variables in measurable terms for accurate data collection.

What is a null hypothesis?

A prediction that there will be no effect or difference in an experiment.

What is demand characteristics?

Cues in an experiment that may lead participants to guess its purpose and alter their behavior.

What is the difference between overt and covert observation?

Overt means participants know they are being observed; covert means they do not.

What is content validity?

The extent to which a test or measure represents all aspects of a concept.

What is face validity?

Whether a test appears to measure what it claims to at face value.

What is an independent measures design?

An experimental design where different participants are used in each condition.

What is a repeated measures design?

An experimental design where the same participants take part in all conditions.

What is a matched pairs design?

An experimental design where participants are paired on characteristics and split across conditions.

What is quantitative data?

Data that is in numerical form, such as scores or measurements.