AP Psych unit 1

exam: Friday, May 14 2027

5 Research methods are:

experiment, correlation, meta analysis, naturalistic observation, case study

experiment

independent variable (manipulated)

dependent variable (measured)

control group (gets placebo drug)

random assignment

shows cause and effect

cofounding variable/3rd party variable (not part of the study, but could possibly affect it)

single-blind (you dont know your group)

double-blind (researcher doesn’t know what group the participants are in)

generalizable (do the results of the study apply to a wider population?)

more of experiment..

hypothesis

falsifiability (prove your hypothesis wrong)

replicate (redoing experiment w new participants)

population (everyone the study could apply to)

representative sample (the people you choose must represent the population)

random sample (people chose randomly)

placebo effect (think your taking the drug, but ur not)

experimenter bias

when the researcher is bias and may influence results

social desirability bias

when you answer questions to make yourself look good, not fully honest

self-report bias

when you see yourself in a different way from others

sample bias

when you dont choose a representative group, so you have bias participants

convinence sample

when the researcher chooses participants out of closeness and easiness

correlation

does not prove causation

uses scatterplots

illusory correlation

2 variables but researcher does not intervene at all

simple looks at data from 2 diff collections

(can be positive or negative)

directionality problem

when you dont know what causes what, it could go both ways

mean

average

median

middle number in data set

mode

number that occurs MOST

standard deviation

a number that shows how far apart the numbers in a data set are from their average

range

difference btwn greatest number and least number

perentile rank

the percentage of scores in a dataset that fall at or below a specific score

bimodial distribution

two numbers come up several times, more than others

what are the 5 ethics?

informed consent

protect from harm

confidental

deception with debriefing later

instituional review

statistical significance

the result is 95% or more NOT due to chance

P-value

probability of concluding that a difference exists when in fact this difference does not exist

effect size

larger effect size = stronger relationship

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme scores to become more moderate as more data is collected

nature vs nurture

are we born with it/genetical/physical, behavioral/ mental traits OR raised that way/external factors+experiences/family+education

evolutionary psychology

how natural selection causes behavior + mental processes to increase survival & reproductive

eugenics

inferior people shouldn’t be able to procreate

twin studies

investigate the role of nature (genes)

adoption studies

investigate the role of nurture

peripheral vs central part of nervous system

peripheral: autonomic (controls self-regulated action of internal organs + glands) somatic (controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles)

central: brain and spinal cord

2 parts of autonomic

sympathetic (arousing, fight or flight, heart beats faster, pupils dilate, inhibits digestion)

parasympathetic (calming, slows heart rate, contracts pupils, stimulates digestion)

neurons

transmit information

glial cells

provide structure, insulation, communication and waste transport. form basis of nervous system. building blocks of all behavior and mental processes

reflex arc

shows how neutrons within the central and peripheral nervous systems work together to respond to stimuli

order of reflex arc:

1. receptors

2. sensory neurons

3. interneurons

4. motor neurons

(neurons in spinal cord)

all-or-nothing principle

neuron either fires or does not fire

depolarization

sodium ions enter the axon

refractory period

a pause after a neuron has fired

resting potential

the neuron can fire, but nothing is activating it

reuptake

the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the sending neuron

threshold

the level of stimulation to fire

what happens if myelin sheath is damaged?

it causes multiple sclerosis (ms) or Myasthenia Gravis (neuromuscular junction) (mg)

axon

passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons

neuro transmitters

specific functions based on location, either excitatory or inhibitory (makes action potential more or less likely)

dopamine

released when you wanted something and got it

too much of it = schizophrenia

too little = parkinson’s disease

serotonin

regulates mood, arousal, or hunger or sleep

too little = depression

norepineprine

alerts nerves, keeps you in action, arousal

lack = depressive

glutamate

helps with memory, excitatory

too much = migraines and seizures

GABA

inhibitory (causes less action)

lack = seizures, tremors, insomnia

endorphins

helps with pain

ex: runner’s high

substance P

pain perception

too much = chronic pain

acetylcholine

helps with memory, muscle movement, learning

too little = Alzheimer’s

adrenaline

arousal

leptin

hunger

(if its LOW, youre hungry)

ghrelin

opposite of leptin

if low, youre NOT hungry

melatonin

helps you sleep

oxytocin

helps you with emotional bonding with others

agonists

encourage neural firing

atagonists

block neuro firing (bad)

reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)

blocks reabsorption of serotonin by the original neuron, keeping it in ur body longer (elevates mood, reduces depression)

stimulant

increase neural activity

ex: caffiene and cocaine

depressants

decrease neural activity , lowers your inhibitions

ex: alcohol

opioids

pain relievers

ex: heroin, morphine

medulla

brain stem, for breathing and heart rate

reticular activating system

brain’s reward center

controls arousal, attention, sleep, voluntary movement, eye movement, learning, cognition, emotion

cerebellum

controls muscle movement, balance, forms of procedural learning

limbic system

emotions and drives, includes:

thalamus (5 senses)

hypothalamus (hunger, temp, emotion)

pituitary gland (controlled by hypothalamus)

hippocampus (memory)

amygdala (fear and aggression)

corpus callosum

between left and ride side of the brain

cerebral cortex parts

frontal lobe, parietal lobes, temporal lobe, occipital lobe, brain stem, cerebellum

occipital lobes

controls visual info processing (sight) (back of brain)

temporal lobes

control auditory and linguistic processing (sides of brain)

left side brain

helps with language, logic analysis, body control

right side brain

visual-spatial tasks

context and tone

body control

parietal lobes

touch/association, process and organize info, somatosensory cortex (back crown of brain)

treatment for severe epilepsy

cut the corpus callosum

contralateral

right brain regulates left side of body and vice versa

motor cortex

controls movement of body parts (top of brain)

Broca’s area

speech

Wernicke’s area

word comprehension

aphasia

language impairment

brain plasticity

if ur brain has a problem in one spot, the rest of it can rewire itself or modify/create new connections throughout development

scans:

EEG (brain waves)

fMRI (detailed look inside brain)

CAT (X-ray of brain)

PET (glucose injection, brain lights up colors)

leisoning

surgeon removes damaged brain part

conciousness

varying levels of awareness of thoughts, feelings, behavior, events in our internal and external worlds (sleep and wakefulness)

circadian rhythm

the sleep/wake cycle (abt 24/25 hours)

jet lag and shift work are disruptions

stages of sleep

stage 1 - NREM alpha

stage 2 - NREM theta

stage 3 - NREM delta

REM - rapid eye movement, muscles/body do not move

hypnagogic sensations

feeling of falling during stage 1 of sleep

activation synthesis (dream theory 1)

all neural activity in ur brain is weaved into a story line

consolidation theory (dream theory 2)

we try to consolidate our memories when we dream

WHY do we sleep?

theories: memory consolidation and restoration of our body/resources

insomnia

struggle to fall and stay asleep

narcolepsy

suddenly go to sleep, cant stay awake (cant drive)

REM sleep behavior disorder

physically act out vivid dreams with arm and leg movement, sounds

sleep apnea

may suddenly stop breathing when asleep, wake up to breath again (heavy weight, age 50+)

somnambulism

sleepwalking

sensation

detecting info from environment, transduces stimuli into neurochemical messages for procession in brain

absolute threshold

occurs when a stimulus can be detected at least 50% of the time

just-noticeable difference

at what point do you notice a change in the stimulus (ex - volume changes)

sensory adaptation

when you have a constant stimulus, at what point do you adapt to it and no longer sense it? (ex: cold pool water)

Weber’s law

the degree to which stimuli need to be different (strength) for the difference to be detected (ex - 50lb vs 55lb)

synthesia

an experience of sensation when one system is experienced through another

ex: hearing color, tasting words

retina

photosensitive surface at back of the eye (sees light)

inside the retina: light waves hit the eye and transduce into action potential/nerve impulse