4. Memory

What are the three basic processes of memory?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

What is encoding?

Putting information into memory.

What is storage?

Keeping information in memory.

What is retrieval?

Getting information out of memory.

What are the three main types/stages of memory?

Sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

What is sensory memory?

The first stage of memory, where information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems such as the eyes and ears.

How is information encoded into sensory memory?

As neural messages in the nervous system.

What is iconic memory?

Visual sensory memory.

How long does iconic memory last?

Only a fraction of a second.

What happens to old information in iconic memory after about a quarter of a second?

It is replaced by new information.

What is the capacity of iconic memory?

Everything that can be seen at one time.

What is masking in iconic memory?

The replacement of old visual information by new visual information.

What is eidetic imagery?

A phenomenon associated with exceptionally vivid visual imagery.

What is echoic memory?

The brief memory of something a person has heard.

What is the capacity of echoic memory?

What can be heard at any one moment, and it is smaller than the capacity of iconic memory.

How long does echoic memory last?

About 2–4 seconds.

What is short-term memory (STM)?

A memory system through which information moves following selective attention.

What is another name for short-term memory?

Working memory.

What did George Miller conclude about STM capacity?

STM has a capacity of the “magical number seven, plus or minus two.”

What is chunking?

A process of grouping information into meaningful units to help remember it.

How long does STM last without rehearsal?

About 12–30 seconds.

What happens to information in STM after 12–30 seconds without rehearsal?

The memory seems to decay or disappear.

What is long-term memory (LTM)?

The third stage of memory, into which information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.

What is the capacity of long-term memory?

Unlimited.

How long can information remain in LTM?

It can be stored for a very long time, with memories being relatively permanent.

What physical change occurs when a long-term memory is formed?

There is a relatively permanent physical change in the brain.

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A way of transferring information from STM into LTM by making the information meaningful.

How can elaborative rehearsal be made easier?

By connecting new information with something that is already well known.

What is procedural memory?

An implicit type of LTM containing memories for skills that people know how to perform.

What are examples of procedural memories?

Tying shoes and riding a bicycle.

What is declarative memory?

An explicit type of LTM involving facts and information that make up knowledge.

What is semantic memory?

A type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as language and information learned through formal education.

What is episodic memory?

Personal knowledge of a person's daily life, including meaningful events and episodes.

Why is episodic memory sometimes called autobiographical memory?

Because it contains memories of personal experiences and events from an individual's life.

What is Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)?

A condition in which a person can recall an exceptionally large amount of autobiographical information.

Who was Jill Price?

A woman who brought HSAM to attention in the early 2000s by claiming she could recall every day of her life since age 12.

What is hyperthymesia?

Another term associated with Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM), also called hyperthymestic syndrome.

Who developed the Information-Processing Model of memory?

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin.

When was the Information-Processing Model developed?

1968.

What is forgetting?

The loss, permanently or temporarily, of the ability to recall or recognize something learned earlier.

How did Munn define forgetting?

Forgetting is the permanent or temporary loss of the ability to recall or recognize something learned earlier.

How did Drever define forgetting?

Failure to recall an experience when attempting to do so, or failure to perform an action previously learned.

How did Bhatia define forgetting?

The failure of an individual to bring an idea or group of ideas into consciousness without the help of the original stimulus.

Who is associated with the Curve of Forgetting?

Hermann Ebbinghaus.

What are the two major theories/categories of forgetting discussed in the notes?

Decay versus interference, and repression versus selective learning.

What is retroactive inhibition?

Confusion of present learning by subsequent learning, especially when the learning is similar.

What is proactive inhibition?

When something learned in the past interferes with or confuses learning something similar and new.

What is the difference between retroactive and proactive inhibition?

Retroactive inhibition involves new learning interfering with previous learning, while proactive inhibition involves previous learning interfering with new learning.

What is repression in relation to forgetting?

The idea that individuals repress memories that are embarrassing or emotionally upsetting to recall.

What does selective learning suggest about forgetting?

People tend to recall what is satisfying or pleasant and tend to forget what is unsatisfying or unpleasant.

Why is attention important for memory?

Attention helps information move from short-term memory into long-term memory.

How can you improve memory by focusing attention?

Study in a place free from distractions such as television, music, and other diversions.

Why should you avoid cramming?

Studying over multiple sessions gives you time to adequately process information and generally improves memory compared with one marathon study session.

What is interval learning?

Studying in separate intervals with breaks between study periods.

What is the traditional Pomodoro technique?

25 minutes of focused work followed by a 5–10-minute break.

How many Pomodoro work intervals are typically completed before a longer break?

About four intervals.

What can be done during a longer Pomodoro break?

Activities such as exercise, meditation, walking, or taking a nap.

Why should study materials be structured and organized?

Information is organized in memory in related clusters, so grouping related concepts can aid recall.

How can you structure and organize study materials?

Group similar concepts and terms together or create an outline of notes and textbook readings.

What are mnemonic devices?

Techniques used to aid recall by providing ways to remember information.

What makes mnemonics especially effective?

Positive imagery, humor, or novelty.

Why is elaboration and rehearsal useful for memory?

It helps encode information into long-term memory.

What is an example of elaborative rehearsal?

Reading a definition, studying it, and then reading a more detailed description of what the term means, repeating the process to improve recall.

How can visualizing concepts improve memory?

Visual cues such as photographs, charts, figures, and self-created diagrams can help people remember information.

How can you create your own visual cues?

Draw charts or figures and use different highlighting or writing methods to group related ideas.

Why should new information be related to things you already know?

Establishing relationships between new ideas and existing memories increases the likelihood of recalling the new information.

How can reading out loud help memory?

Research cited in the notes suggests that reading material aloud can significantly improve memory of the material.

How can teaching others improve memory?

Teaching new concepts to others can enhance understanding and recall.

Why should you pay extra attention to difficult information?

Spending additional time rehearsing and restructuring difficult information can make it easier to remember.

How can you restructure difficult information?

Organize or present the information in a way that makes it easier to remember.

Why should you vary your study routine?

Changing your study location or study time can help increase recall.

How can you vary your study routine?

For example, study in a different location or review material at a different time of day.

Why is sleep important for memory?

Sleep supports learning and memory and can help people remember newly learned information better.

How can taking a nap after learning affect memory?

It may help learning occur faster and improve memory.

What did the 2024 study mentioned in the notes find about sleep and the brain?

Sleep after learning was associated with physical changes in the brain; sleep-deprived mice showed less dendritic growth following a learning task than well-rested mice.

What is one recommended lecture-note strategy?

Have a specific notebook for every class.

Why should you read the assignment before going to class?

It prepares you for the lecture material.

Where does the lecture recommend sitting?

At the front of the classroom.

What should you write at the top of your lecture notes?

The date and title of the lecture.

What should you focus on writing during a lecture?

The main ideas of the lecture.

Why should lecture notes be organized?

Organization makes the information easier to understand, review, and remember.

What can abbreviations be used for when taking notes?

To record information efficiently and quickly.

What should you use when writing lecture notes?

Your own words, except when recording technical vocabulary.

What should you do if you miss information during a lecture?

Leave a blank so you know to return and fill in the missing information.

Why is it important to learn when not to write?

To avoid trying to record everything and instead focus on important information.

What should you learn to distinguish when taking lecture notes?

Facts from opinions.