exam3

Representativeness Heuristic

Deciding what group something belongs to based on how much it looks like what we think is typical for that group.

Base Rates

How often something usually happens in the real world.

Base-rate Fallacy

Ignoring how common something really is because we focus too much on how typical it seems.

Availability Heuristic

Judging something based on how easily we can remember examples of it.

Simulation Heuristic (Counterfactual Thinking)

Imagining 'what could have happened' which changes how we feel about what actually happened.

Outcomes of Bilingualism

Improves thinking skills, helps students in school, boosts self-control, and activates more brain parts.

Perseverance Effect

The tendency to keep believing something even when shown it’s wrong.

Confirmation Bias

Only looking for or believing information that agrees with what we already think.

Stereotype Threat

The stress felt when in a situation where a negative stereotype about one's group might apply to them.

Combating Stereotype Threat

Reducing it by seeing role models, building confidence, and believing abilities can grow with effort.

Fixed Mindset

Believing that one's abilities can't change.

Growth Mindset

Believing that one can improve with effort.

Growth Mindset Outcomes

Leads to more effort and persistence because one believes they can get better.

Internal Attribution

Attributing behavior to the person's disposition.

External Attribution

Attributing behavior to the situation.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Blaming the person instead of the situation for their behavior.

Jones & Harris (1967) Study

Study showing people still believed the writer supported Castro despite being forced to write the essay.

Actor-Observer Effect

Blaming the situation for one's own behavior while blaming others' behavior on their personality.

Self-Serving Attribution

Credit oneself for success but blame the situation for failure.

Social Roles

Expected behavior from certain positions (like guard or student) can shape actions.

Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment

Study showing people acted cruelly or submissively based on assigned roles.

Cognitive Dissonance

Feeling uncomfortable when actions don't match beliefs.

Counterattitudinal Behavior

Acting against one's belief.

Insufficient Justification

Lack of a good reason for a behavior.

Choice

Voluntarily choosing to engage in a behavior.

Effort

The amount of effort put into a behavior.

Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) study

Study showing $1 group felt more dissonance and changed attitude more than the $20 group.

Normative Social Influence

Desiring to fit in with a group.

Informational Social Influence

Desiring to be correct in one's perceptions.

Asch’s Conformity Study

Study showing 75% of people gave wrong answers at least once to fit in, demonstrating normative influence.

Milgram’s Obedience Study

Study where 65% of people obeyed to shock the 'learner' to the highest level.

Social Loafing

The tendency to exert less effort in a group.

Deindividuation

Feeling anonymous in a group, leading to loss of self-awareness and bad behavior.

Group Polarization

Group makes more extreme decisions than individuals would alone.

Groupthink

Group ignores other opinions to maintain harmony.

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward a group.

Stereotyping

Overgeneralizing traits to a group.

Discrimination

Acting unfairly toward a group.

Explicit Prejudice

Obvious and openly expressed negative attitudes.

Implicit Prejudice

Hidden and unconscious negative attitudes.

Implicit Association Test

Measures hidden biases by testing reaction speed to stimuli.

Just-World Phenomenon

Belief that people get what they deserve, leading to victim blaming.

Realistic Conflict Theory

Competition for resources leads to prejudice.

Sherif’s Robber’s Cave Experiment

Study showing two groups of boys became hostile when competing.

Social Identity Theory

We derive self-esteem from our group identity.

In-group Bias

Favoring one's own group over others.

Minimal Groups (Tajfel, 1971)

Even meaningless group labels can lead to favoritism.

Categorization

Our brain quickly groups people, often resulting in stereotypes.

Confirmation Bias (repeated)

Noticing information that supports our beliefs while ignoring contrary evidence.