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Archival Research
Gathering data from existing records or documents.
Case Study
In-depth analysis of a single subject or group.
Cause-And-Effect Relationship
Understanding how one variable influences another.
Control Group
Group in an experiment without the experimental treatment.
Correlational Research
Examining the relationship between variables without manipulation.
Critical Thinking
Analyzing and evaluating information for informed decisions.
Dependent Variable (DV)
Measured variable affected by the independent variable.
Double-Blind Study
Study where neither participants nor researchers know treatment allocation.
Experiment
Controlled investigation to test a hypothesis.
Experimental Group
Group in an experiment receiving the experimental treatment.
Falsifiable
Capable of being proven false through observation or experimentation.
Hypothesis
Testable prediction or explanation.
Independent Variable
Variable manipulated by the researcher.
Naturalistic Observation
Studying behavior in its natural environment.
Operational Definition
Defining variables in terms of how they are measured or manipulated.
Placebo Effect
Response to a placebo due to the belief it is an active treatment.
Random Sample
Sample selected randomly from the population.
Scientific Method
Systematic research approach involving observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and analysis.
Theory
Well-substantiated explanation based on evidence and tested hypotheses.
Wilhelm Wundt
Considered the founder of experimental psychology.
Biopsychology
Study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes.
Action Potential
Electrical signal transmitted along the neuron.
Agonist
Substance enhancing the activity of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonist
Substance inhibiting the activity of a neurotransmitter.
Extinction
Diminishing of a learned response without pairing stimuli.
Law of Effect
Behaviors with positive outcomes are likely repeated.
Learning
Acquiring new knowledge or skills.
Negative Reinforcement
Increasing behavior by removing aversive stimuli.
Negative Punishment
Decreasing behavior by removing desired stimuli.
Operant Conditioning
Learning through consequences of behavior.
Neutral Stimulus
Stimulus initially not eliciting a response.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing others.
Positive Reinforcement
Increasing behavior by adding desired stimuli.
Positive Punishment
Decreasing behavior by adding aversive stimuli.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Patterns affecting behavior due to reinforcement.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Innate response to an unconditional stimulus.
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Emotional and physiological responses occur simultaneously.
Components of emotion
Include physiological arousal, behaviors, and experiences.
Drive theory
Behaviors motivated to reduce internal tension.
Emotion
Psychological and physiological responses to stimuli.
Extrinsic motivation
Driven by external rewards or consequences.
Facial feedback hypothesis
Facial expressions influence emotional experiences.
Hierarchy of needs
Maslow's hierarchy from basic to self-actualization needs.
Intrinsic motivation
Driven by internal rewards like satisfaction.
James-Lange theory of emotion
Emotions from physiological arousal triggering experiences.
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion
Emotions involve arousal and cognitive appraisal.
Self-efficacy
Belief in succeeding in specific situations.
Atkinson-Shiffrin model
Model with sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.
Chunking
Organizing information into smaller units for memory.
Declarative memory
Memory for facts and events consciously recalled.
Encoding
Converting information for memory storage.
Episodic memory
Stores personal experiences and events.
Explicit memory
Intentional memory retrieval.
Flashbulb memory
Detailed memory of emotionally significant events.
Implicit memory
Unconscious memory retrieval like procedural memory.
Long-term memory (LTM)
System for later retrievable information.
Proactive interference
Old memories interfere with recalling newer ones.
Procedural memory
Memory for performing tasks or skills.
Recall
Retrieving information from memory.
Rehearsal
Repeating information for encoding and retention.
Retrieval
Accessing stored information in memory.
Retroactive interference
New memories interfere with recalling older ones.
Semantic memory
Memory for general knowledge and concepts.
Sensory memory
Brief storage of sensory information.
Short-term memory (STM)
Temporary storage actively processed.
Actor-observer bias
Attributing own actions to external factors.
Asch effect
Conforming to group norms despite personal beliefs.
Attitude
Evaluation or feeling towards a person, object, or situation.
Attribution
Explaining behavior internally or externally.
Cognitive dissonance
Discomfort from conflicting beliefs or attitudes.
Conformity
Adjusting behavior to fit with a group.
Fundamental attribution error (FAE)
Overemphasizing internal traits in explaining others' behavior.
Internal/external attribution
Attributing behavior to internal traits or external circumstances.
Obedience
Compliance with authority figures' orders.
Role conflict
Conflict between roles a person holds.
Self-handicapping
Creating obstacles to protect self-esteem from failure.
Self-serving bias
Attributing success to internal factors and failure to external ones.
Social psychology
Study of individual behavior in social contexts.
Social role
Expectations for behavior in a social position.
Just-world hypothesis
Belief in deserving outcomes based on actions.
Stanford Prison Experiment
Study on psychological effects of power and authority.
Normative social influence
Conforming to be accepted by a group.
Informational social influence
Conforming to be correct or accurate.
Locus of control
Belief in controlling events in one's life.
Groupthink
Decision-making in groups seeking consensus.
Sensation
Detecting stimuli through sensory organs.
Wavelength
Distance between wave peaks or troughs.
Depth Perception
Perceiving relative object distances in 3D space.
Autonomic Nervous System
Controls involuntary bodily functions.
axon
Nerve fiber that transmits signals away from the cell body.
Central Nervous System (CNS
brain and spinal cord
cerebral hemispheres
the two halves of the brain
dendrites
Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals.
Fight or Flight
Physiological response to stress or danger.
Frontal Lobes
Brain region involved in decision making and personality.
gene
Unit of heredity that carries genetic information.
homeostasis
Maintenance of stable internal conditions in the body
natural selection
Process by which favorable traits are passed on to offspring.
occipital lobe
Brain region responsible for visual processing.
parietal lobe
Brain region involved in sensory processing.