general psychology ch.6,8,9 & 11

behaviorism

stimulus -> response

learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience

associative learning (conditioning)

a basic kind of learning that involves associations among environmental stimuli and an organisms behavior

classical conditioning

- the process by which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already elicits a response and, in turn, acquired the capacity to elicit a similar or related response

- focus on reflexive behaviors

discovered by ivan pavlov around 1900

AKA respondent conditioning

parts of classical conditioning

unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response

unconditioned stimulus ----->

unconditioned response

conditioned stimulus ------->

conditioned response

unconditioned stimulus

autimatically elucits response (no learning required)

unconditioned response

reflexive response elicited by unconditioned stimulus (no learning required)

neutral stimulus

does not autimatically elicit a response

conditioned stimulus

initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response

response elicited by conditioned stimulus; it occurs after conditioned stimulus is associated with unconditioned stimulus

classical conditioning: higher order conditioning

a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus

classical conditioning: stimulus generalization

stimulus that resembles the condtioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response

classic conditioning: stimulus discrimination

stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus fails to evoke a conditioned response

classical conditioning: extinction

weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus

classical conditioning: fears and phobias

"little Albert" conditioned to be afraid of white rats by pairing a neutral stimulus (rats) with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noise)

classic conditioning: ractions to medical treatments

some cancer patients acquire a classically conditioned anxiety response to anything associated with their chemotherapy

classical conditioning: food aversions

many people learn to dislike a food after eating it an then falling ill, even when the two events are unrelated

operant conditioning

- the process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences

- focus on voluntary behavior

- elaborated and extended by BF skinner who emphasized radical behaviorism

operant conditioning: reinforcement

the process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows

operant conditioning: punishment

th eprocess by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows

operant conditioning: reinforcer

any stimulus that strengthens or increases the probability of a response

operant conditioning: primary reinforcers

inherently reinforcing, typically satisfy physchological need

operant conditioning: secondary reinforcers

stimuli that have aquired reinforcing properties through associations with other reinforcers

operant conditioning: punishers

any stimulus that weakens or decreases the probability of a response

operant conditioning: primary punishers

inherently punishing

operant conditioning: secondary punishers

stimuli that have aquired punishing properties through associations with other punishers

operant conditioning: positive reinforcement

response is followed by the presentation of or increase in intensity of a reinforcing stimulus; as a result, the reponse becomes stringer or more likely to occur

operant conditioning: negative reinforcement

response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; as a result the repsonse becomes stronger or more likely to occur

operant conditioning: positive punishment

response is followed by the presentation ot or increase in intesity of a punishing stimulus; as a result the response becomes weaker or less likey to occur

operant conditioning: negative punishment

response if followed by the removal, delar, or decrease in intensity of a pleasant stimulus; as a result the response becomes weaker or less likely to occur

operant conditioning: extinction

weakening and eventual disappearance of learned response; occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer

schedules of reinforcement: continuous reinforcement

every occurence of a response in reinforced

schedules of reinforcement: partial intermittent reinforcement

only some occurrences of a response are reinforced

operant conditioning: shaping

- teach complex behaviors

- reinforce successive approximations of desired response

operant conditioning:successive approcimatitons

behaviors ordered by increasing similarity to desired response

pros and cons of punishment can work if

immediate, mild, cosistent, and involced reinforcement of desired responses

cons of punishment

1. innapropriate/mindless

2. may lead to anxiety, fear, or rage

3. suppression (dont get caught) vs. extinction

4. hard to punish immediately

5. no information on desired response

6. punishment may be inherently reinforcing

problems with rewards: misuse of rewards

- undereved rewards to boost self esteem

- lack fo contructive feedback

extrinsic reinforcers

not inherently related to activity being reinforced (external/arbitrary)

intrinsic reinforcers

inherently related to activity being reinforced such as enjoyment, satisfaction or pride

social cognitive perspective: observational learning and modeling

learning by observing the behavior of another (a model) rather than through direct experience (bobo doll)

social cognitive perspective: latent learning

- learning not immediatly sxpressed in overt response

- learning vs. performance

social cognitive perspective: cognition

plans, expectations, and beliefs

Developmental psychology

Study lifelong development across 3 domains: physical, cognitive, psychosocial

Physical development

Growth and changes in the body and brain, senses, motor skills, and health and wellness

Cognitive development

Learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity

Psychosocial development

Emotions, personality, and social relationships

Key issues: continuous vs. discontinuous

Is development a gradual/ cumulative, or does it occur more suddenly at specific times, ages, or stages

Key issues: one course of development or many

Is development the same for all children or does it vary depending on genetics and environment/culture

Key issues: nature vs, nurture

Are we who we become because of biology and genetics or because of environment and culture

Teratogen

Environmental agents that cause damage to the developing embryo or fetus

Alcohol

Can cause fetal alcohol syndrome

Smoking

can result in premature birth, low-birth weight, stillbirths, sudden infant death syndrome

Dugs

Heroine, cocaine, prescription drugs can lead to impaired cognitive functioning, attention span, and academic achievement

Radiation and viruses

Can cause fetal deformities and cognitive abnormalities

Motor reflexes

Automatic behaviors necessary for survival

Motor reflexes examples

Rooting, sucking, grasping, Moro

Rooting reflex

Head turns when cheek is stimulated

Sucking reflex

Suck on objects placed by the kouth

Grasping reflex

Cling to objects placed in habds

Moro reflex

Baby spreads are arms and pulls them back in when they are startled/feel like their falling

Newborn sensory abilities : vision

Least developed sense, preference for faces

Merton sensory ability

Vision, hearing, olfaction

Newborn sensory abilities :hearing

Preference for human voices and prefer kother voice

Newborn sensory abilities :olfaction

Can distinguish the smell of their own mother from that of others

Attachment

Develop emotional bond between infant and primary caregiver. Important for health and emotional development. Served as a foundation for all future adult relationships

Contact comfort

Innate pleasure derived from close physical contacy

Separation anxiety

Distress most children develop when they are temporarily separated from their primary caregiver

Attachment style: secure common behaviors

Child uses parent as secure base from which to explore

Child distressed when mother leaves, happy when mother returns

Attachment style: secure common when

Caregivers are sensitive and responsive to needs

Attachment style: avoidant common behaviors

Unresponsive to parent, does not use parent as a secure base, does not care if parent leaves

Slow to show positive reaction when mother returned

Attachment style: avoidant common when

Caregivers are insensitive and inattentive to needs

Attachment style: resistant common behaviors

Clingy behavior but rejects mothers attempt to interact with them

Does not explore becomes disturbed when mother leaves, difficult to comfort when mother leaves

Attachment style: resistant common when

Caregiver is inconsistent with level of response

Attachment style: disorganized common behaviors

Odd behavior around caregiver

Behave oddly when mother leaves, tries to run away when returns

Attachment style: disorganized common when

Child has been abused

Parenting Styles: Authoritative

Reasonable demands consistent limits, express warmth and affection, listen to the child's point of view

Parenting style: authoritarian

High values of conformity and obedience, are often rigid, express little warmth to the child

Parenting style: permissive

Make few demands, rarely use punishment

Parenting style: uninvolved

Indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes neglectful. Doesn't respond to child needs and makes relatively few demands

Temperament

innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment

Easy temperament

positive emotions, adapt well to change, and capable of regulating emotion. Lore likely to elicit warm and responsive parenting

Difficult temperament

negative emotions, difficulty adapting to change and regulating emotions. More likely to evoke irritation causing parents to withdraw

Jean Piaget

Cognitive development consists of mental adaptations to new observations

Assimilation

Absorbing new information into existing mental categories

Accommodation

Modifying existing mental categories in response to new information into

Stage 1 of cognitive development: sensorimotor

Infant learns through concrete actions: looking, touching, putting things in the mouth, sucking, grasping

- thinking consists of coordinating sensory information with bodily movement

Stage 1 of cognitive development

Sensorimotor (birth-2)

Major accomplishment during stage 1

Object permanence: understanding that an object continues to exist even when you cannot see or touch jr

Stage 2 of Cognitive Development

Pre operational (2-6)

Stage 2 of cognitive development: pre operational

- language and symbolic thought develop

- lack cognitive abilities necessary for understanding abstract principles (unable to form operations)

- cannot grasp conservation: lack understanding that physical object can remain the same even when form or appearance changes

- egocentrism: seeing the world only from their pov, can't imagine things differently

Stage 3 of cognitive development

Concrete operations (7-11)

Stage 3 of cognitive development: concrete operations

- thinking still grounded in concrete experiences and concepts

- can understand conservation, cause and effect, mental operations, categorization, serial ordering

Stage 4 of cognitive development

Formal operations (12+)

Stage 4 of cognitive development: formal operations

- beginning of abstract reasoning

- can reason about situations not personally experiences

- can think about the future

- can research systematically for solutions

-can draw logical conclusions

Limitations of 4 stage model

- cognitive development occurs gradually; continuous and overlapping theater than discrete steps/stages

- children and infants reveal cognitive abilities much earlier than Piaget believed

Moral Development (Kohlberg)

3 levels each with 2 stages

Moral development: level 1

Stage 1: obedience and punishment

Stage 2: individual interest