A&P Final Exam

Origins of Medical Science

The early interest in the human body led to the development of medical science, as people became concerned about injuries and illnesses.

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy focuses on the form and organization of body parts, while physiology deals with the functions of these parts.

Levels of Organization

The body is composed of atoms, which form organelles, which make up cells. Cells are organized into tissues, tissues into organs, organs into organ systems, and organ systems make up the organism.

Core Themes in Anatomy and Physiology

Key concepts include the cell as the basic unit of life, homeostasis, the interdependence of cells, the relationship between structure and function, and the importance of energy for cellular function.

The Characteristics and Maintenance of Life

Characteristics of life include growth, reproduction, responsiveness, movement, metabolism, respiration, digestion, circulation, and excretion. Organisms require chemicals, heat, and pressure to maintain life, and homeostasis is essential for survival.

Organization of the Human Body

The body is organized into body cavities, such as the cranial and thoracic cavities, and membranes, such as the pleural and peritoneal membranes. Organ systems, such as the integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems, work together to maintain the body's functions.

Life-Span Changes

Aging affects the body at the cellular, tissue, organ, and organ system levels. Changes include decreased fertility, skin changes, altered drug metabolism, DNA mutations, and the accumulation of beta amyloid protein in the brain.

Anatomical Terminology

Precise terms are used to describe relative position, body sections, and body regions in order to effectively communicate in anatomy and physiology.

The Importance of Chemistry in Anatomy and Physiology

Chemistry is important in understanding anatomy and physiology because the human body is composed of chemicals, and chemical reactions are involved in various bodily processes.

Fundamentals of Chemistry

Matter is composed of elements, which are made up of atoms. Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers. Molecules and compounds are formed when atoms combine.

Bonding of Atoms

Atoms gain, lose, or share electrons to form bonds. Ionic bonds occur when atoms gain or lose electrons, while covalent bonds occur when atoms share electrons. Hydrogen bonds can form within and between polar molecules.

Electrolytes, Acids and Bases, and Salts

Electrolytes are compounds that ionize in water. Acids release hydrogen ions, bases release hydroxide ions, and salts are formed when acids and bases react. pH represents the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

Chemical Constituents of Cells

Organic substances contain carbon and hydrogen atoms and include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Inorganic substances include water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and inorganic salts.

Denaturation

The process in which proteins lose their structure and function due to exposure to excessive heat, radiation, electricity, or certain chemicals.

Nucleic acids

Molecules that constitute genes, control cell activities, and direct protein synthesis. The two types are RNA and DNA.

Nucleotides

The building blocks of nucleic acids.

DNA replication

The process in which DNA molecules are replicated, resulting in an exact copy of the original cell's DNA being passed to each newly formed cell during cell division.

Cell specialization

The process in which cells differentiate and acquire specific functions, leading to a wide variation in size, shape, and function among differentiated cells.

Cell membrane

The outermost limit of the living material that acts as a selectively permeable passageway controlling the movement of substances between the cell and its surroundings.

Phospholipid bilayer

The main framework of the cell membrane, consisting of a double layer of phospholipid molecules.

Cholesterol

Molecules that help stabilize the cell membrane.

Proteins

Molecules in the cell membrane that provide special functions such as transporters, receptors, enzymes, cell surface markers, and cellular adhesion molecules.

Cytoplasmic organelles

Membranous and nonmembranous structures within the cytoplasm that perform specific functions in the cell.

Ribosomes

Structures of protein and RNA that function in protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic reticulum

A network of connected membranous sacs, canals, and vesicles that provide a communication system and site of lipid synthesis.

Golgi apparatus

A stack of flattened, membranous sacs that package glycoproteins for secretion.

Mitochondria

Membranous sacs containing enzymes that release energy from nutrient molecules and convert it into a usable form.

Lysosomes

Membranous sacs containing digestive enzymes that destroy debris and worn-out organelles.

Cell nucleus

The organelle that contains DNA and controls the activities of the cell.

Nuclear envelope

A double-layered membrane that encloses the nucleus and controls the movement of substances between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

Diffusion

The movement of atoms, molecules, or ions from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration.

Facilitated diffusion

The movement of substances using protein channels or carrier molecules in the cell membrane.

Osmosis

The movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane toward the solution with greater osmotic pressure.

Active transport

The movement of molecules or ions from regions of lower concentration to regions of higher concentration, requiring ATP and carrier molecules in the cell membrane.

Endocytosis

The process in which the cell membrane engulfs substances by forming vesicles.

Exocytosis

The process in which vesicles containing secretions fuse with the cell membrane, releasing substances to the outside.

Cell cycle

The sequence of events that a cell undergoes, including interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.

Stem cells

Cells that have the ability to divide and differentiate into various cell types.

Apoptosis

A form of programmed cell death that is part of normal development and growth.

Genetics

The study of inheritance of characteristics and human variation.

Genes

DNA sequences that encode proteins and are passed from generation to generation through meiosis and fertilization.

Allele

An alternate form or variant of a gene.

Mendelian inheritance

The inheritance patterns described by Gregor Mendel, where dominant and recessive alleles determine the expression of traits.

Codominance

A mode of inheritance where both alleles in a heterozygote are expressed.

Polygenic inheritance

The inheritance of traits that are coded for by two or more genes.

Pleiotropy

A phenomenon where a single gene affects multiple traits or has multiple effects on an individual.

Chromosomal disorders

Disorders caused by extra, missing, or rearranged chromosomes or parts of them, leading to imbalances or disruptions in genetic material.

Trisomic

A cell with an extra chromosome.

Monosomic

A cell with a missing chromosome.

Autosomal aneuploids

Chromosome abnormalities that occur in autosomes and are more severe than sex chromosome aneuploids.

Prenatal tests

Tests conducted during pregnancy to detect chromosome abnormalities.

Ultrasound

A medical imaging technique that can detect large-scale structural abnormalities and assess growth.

Maternal serum marker tests

Tests that indirectly detect a small fetal liver, which can indicate a trisomy.

Chorionic villus sampling

A procedure that obtains and examines chorionic villus cells, which are genetically identical to fetal cells.

Amniocentesis

A procedure that samples and examines fetal chromosomes from amniotic fluid.

Cell-free fetal DNA testing

A test that detects aneuploidies from fetal DNA in the maternal circulation.

Genetic tests

Tests used to diagnose single-gene diseases, identify gene variants associated with elevated risk, and select treatments.

Genomics

The study of all the genetic information of an individual organism.

Inherited mutation

A mutation transmitted from parent to offspring.

De novo mutation

A mutation that occurs in a gamete or early in fetal development.

Exome sequencing

Sequencing the protein-encoding part of the genome.

Genome sequencing

Sequencing the entire genome.

Metabolism

The reactions and pathways that build up and break down molecules.

Anabolism

The process of building molecules.

Catabolism

The process of breaking down molecules.

Enzyme

A protein that catalyzes specific metabolic reactions.

Metabolic pathways

Sequences of enzyme-controlled reactions.

Rate-limiting enzyme

An enzyme that regulates a metabolic pathway.

Cofactors

Chemical groups necessary for the function of some enzymes.

ATP

Adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy-carrying molecule in a cell.

Cellular respiration

The process that transfers energy from molecules like glucose for cellular use.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, contains genetic information for protein synthesis.

Genetic code

The sequence of nucleotides in DNA that codes for amino acids in proteins.

Transcription

The process of synthesizing RNA from DNA.

Translation

The process of synthesizing polypeptide molecules from mRNA.

Mutation

A change in a DNA sequence.

Epithelial tissue

Tissue that covers body surfaces and lines organs and cavities.

Intercellular junctions

Specialized connections between cells.

Histology

The microscopic study of tissues.

Simple squamous epithelium

A single layer of thin, flattened cells that allow substances to pass easily.

Simple cuboidal epithelium

A single layer of cube-shaped cells that carry out secretion and absorption.

Simple columnar epithelium

Elongated cells that line the uterus and digestive tract and function in protection, secretion, and absorption.

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Appears stratified due to nuclei at different levels and commonly has cilia.

Stratified squamous epithelium

Many layers of flattened cells that protect underlying cells.

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

Two or three layers of cube-shaped cells that line ducts and function in protection.

Stratified columnar epithelium

Elongated cells in the top layer and cube-shaped cells in the bottom layers that function in protection and secretion.

Transitional epithelium

Specialized to stretch and lines urinary and reproductive organs.

Glandular epithelium

Composed of cells specialized to secrete substances.

Exocrine glands

Glands that secrete into ducts.

Endocrine glands

Glands that secrete into tissue fluid or blood.

Tubular glands

Glands consisting of epithelial-lined tubes.

Alveolar glands

Glands consisting of saclike dilations connected to the surface by narrowed ducts.

Exocrine glands

Glands classified according to the composition of their secretions.

Merocrine glands

Glands that secrete fluids without loss of cytoplasm.

Serous cells

Cells that secrete watery fluid.

Mucous cells

Cells that secrete mucus.

Apocrine glands

Glands that lose portions of their cells during secretion.

Holocrine glands

Glands that release cells filled with secretions.

Connective tissue

Tissue that connects, supports, protects, provides frameworks, fills spaces, stores fat, produces blood cells, protects against infection, and helps repair damaged tissues.

Connective tissue proper

Category of connective tissue that includes loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue.