PSYC335: Understanding Offending Behaviour

Juvenile Delinquency

law - and norm - violating behaviours committed by a child or adolescent

- Spectrum of behaviours: minor <-----> serious

Youth Delinquency

not a legal definition but relies on laws relating to age (status offences) and includes breaking of age-appropriate rules

Measuring Delinquency: Official Records

- Includes worst offenders and offences

- Most offending undetected

- Records influenced by various other factors

- Conservative estimate of actual offending behaviour

Measuring Delinquency: Self-Report

- Worst offenders may be missing

- Lying/forgetting

- More complete range of delinquent activity

- Can improve validity by using collateral sources, e.g., parents, teachers

Official Records vs. Self-Report

Most studies use official records > self-report

- more effective and efficient while self-report more costly

Levels of Defining Recidivism (Reoffending)

• Engaging in antisocial behaviours

• Detected/known

• Arrested

• Charged

• Conviction

DSM-5 Diagnoses Associated with Youth Delinquency

- ODD: oppositional defiant disorder

- CD: conduct disorder

- APD: Antisocial personality disorder

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

- Pattern of negativistic, hostile, and defiant behaviour

- 8 criteria

- 4+ must be present for 6+ months (e.g., vindictiveness)

Conduct Disorder

- Repetitive & persistent pattern of behaviour where basic rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms or rules are violated

3+/15 criteria present in past 12 months ​

Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)

- Pattern of disregard for, & violation of, the rights of others

- 18+ years old to be diagnosed

- Requires evidence of Conduct disorder before 15 years (not necessarily diagnosed) and Pattern of antisocial behaviour (ASB) persisting into adulthood

Prevalence of Juvenile Delinquency Conviction:

- Boys ~ 20-33%

- Girls ~ 3-14%

Prevalence of ODD, CD, & APD

- ODD: 1-11%

- Conduct Disorder: 2-10%

- APD (Adult) Men ~ 0.2-3%

- APD (Adult) Women ~ 1%

Biological Theories to Youth Delinquency: Genetics

- Fathers who engage in antisocial behaviour (ASB) are more likely to have children who also do

- Twin & adoption studies: children who have a biological father who engages in ASB are more likely to engage in ASB even if raised apart

Antisocial youth have a slower heart rate, suggesting a higher threshold for excitability and emotionality

Biological Theories: Frontal Lobe

- antisocial youth have less frontal lobe inhibition, thus more likely to act impulsivity & make poor decisions

- responsibilities of frontal lobe = planning, self-regulation, decision making, future-thinking, executive functioning

- Still developing in 20s

Cognitive Theories: Thought processes

- Cognitive deficits & distortions

- Attend to fewer social and emotional cues

- Misattribute ambiguous situations as hostile

- limited problem solving skills, produce few solutions and solutions are often aggressive/antisocial

Social Theories of Youth Delinquency

- Social learning theory

- Increase behaviour that is reinforced

- Inadequate parental supervision and inconsistent discipline of ASB

Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1965) & Youth Delinquency

- Often witness ASB -> more likely chance to do ASB

- Children with ASB tend to have influences around them with ASB, e.g., parents

Age-Crime Curve

the relationship between chronological age and offending, showing that the prevalence of offending peaks in late adolescence

- based off official records, which have an age-restriction (under 10 less likely to be charged officially)

Age Crime Curve with Other Sources

other sources of data (e.g., brought into custody and delinquency) -> Police-identified new offender's at 7-17 years

Stability of Disordered Conduct over Time & Situation

small group who have high rates of ASB across time and situation

Moffitt (1993) Two Main Developmental Pathways

Adolescence Limited (AL)

Life Course Persistent (LCP)

Adolescence Limited (AL)

characterised by discontinuity and instability and refers to antisocial behaviours emerge during adolescence and typically cease in young adulthood

- most stop early adulthood

- 70% of general population

- commit serious and minor acts (like LCP)

- Large group but account for a small amount of total offending overtime/lifetime

Sneer

external, negative contexts that change the course of where AL were going & derails it

e.g., prison, expelled from school

Life Course Persistent (LCP)

Characterised by continuity and individuals who are engaging consistently in problematic behaviour from childhood into adulthood/across the lifespan (though the nature of the ASB changes )

- smaller group, around 5-10% of the population, but responsible for large amount of offending (50% of known crime)

Dunedin Study

- 1000+ people born in Dunedin, 1972-73

- Sample 52% boys& mainly NZ European/Pakeha

- longitudinal

- Interviewed/measured at 2-3 year intervals

- Of males, LCP = 47 (105), while AL = 122 (26%)

Ratio of Males: AL (Dunedin Study)

122 (26%)

Ratio of Female: AL (Dunedin Study)

78 (18%)

Ratio of Male: LCP (Dunedin Study)

47 (10%)

Ratio of Female: LCP

6 (1%)

Two Main Characteristics of Life Course Persistent

1. Contemporary Continuity: Traits that made them vulnerable as children are carried into adulthood and across time/situations

2. Cumulative Consequences (snowballing): Accumulation of problems that increase the risk of offending and restricts other options

Prognosis with Life Course Persistent

- Difficult to Find Interventions

- Issues across settings, i.e., home, school, work, social etc.

- Examples of prognosis: debt, substance abuse, homelessness, drunk driving, psychiatric issues

- Comorbid, not mutually exclusive, & intergenerational

Theory & Evidence of LCP Development

- Consider broader systems

- Based on inherited risk factors or factors developing early interact with (other) environmental risk factors

- Someone can have a predisposition and not engage in ASB or they cannot have a genetic predisposition and still engage in ASB

Temperament

describes how a child reacts to the environment

"Difficult" Temperament

linked to aggression and delinquency

irritability, reactivity to stress, impulsivity, slow to learn, and achieve milestones & parents respond negatively

'Problem Children' Subtle Neuropsychological Deficits

- Clumsy, awkward

- Overactive

- Inattentive

- Impulsive

- Erratic biorhythms

- Slow to learn

- Irritable

- Difficult to soothe

Children's Characteristics are Exacerbated by Caregivers

Difficult, unrewarding children can have their parents share their temperament (Inconsistent, irritable), therefore, vulnerable children get exacerbated by the home environment and parents (who likely share these temperaments) may reinforce or model problematic behaviours for these children

Parenting/Family Risk Factor

- Families that lack harmony, emotional warmth, acceptance, stability

- Inconsistent & coercive parenting (Too strict, or too permissible)

- Child abuse and/or neglect

- Interacts with child temperament

Cambridge Study

- Poor parenting of 8 year olds doubled risk of later juvenile conviction

- Harsh or erratic parental discipline

- Cruel, passive, or neglectful parental attitude

- Poor parental supervision

Rochester Youth Development Study

​

Child maltreatment before 12 predicted self-reported violence 14-18 years due to

Genetic inheritance of traits/dispositions

Harsh family environment models aggressive, criminal behaviour

Criminal Risk: Genetically Transmitted?

- Intergenerational criminality (delinquent boys found 6% of families accounted for 50% of recorded crimes)

- Identification twins concordance rater > fraternal twins

Adoption Studies & Criminality

Children from criminal biological parent > criminality than children from noncriminal biological parent

Neurocognitive Risk Factors to Youth Delinquency

- impairment in spatial functioning & lower verbal intelligence for LCP offenders

- Broad cognitive difficulty

Moffitt's: Reason for AL & LCP Theory

AL emerges alongside puberty, relates to "maturity gap" and thinking think delinquency is cool

LCP kids were already delinquent due to Social rejection by peers & Hang out with other delinquents

Exceptions to the Moffitt's Theory

- Normative group, recovery, and abstainers

- 64% of the sample

Moffitt's Theory: Recovery

8% very antisocial children whose behaviour was no longer extreme in adolescence

Moffitt's Theory: Abstainers

5% who had engaged in no ASB from 5-18 years

Moffitt's Theory: Normative

51% were "normative"/Fitted no other pattern

Reasons Children May Abstain to Antisocial Activity

- Not aware of maturity gap

- Late puberty

- Access to adult privileges & activities

- Limited opportunity to learn delinquent behaviour

- Personal characteristics exclude them from delinquent group (e.g., nervous, withdrawn, few friends)

Other Pathways for Antisocial Behaviours (Loeber, 1993)

Overt Pathway:

Covert Pathway:

Authority Conflict Pathway:

not mutually exclusive and early the onset, the higher the rates of offending

Loeber, 1993: Overt Pathway

Aggression

Stage 1: Starts with minor aggression

Stage 2: Physical fights

Stage 3: Severe violence

(Stage 4: Homicide)

Loeber, 1993: Covert Pathway

Dishonesty/property

Stage 1: Starts before 15 yrs with minor covert acts

Stage 2: Property damage

Stage 3: Moderate delinquency

Stage 4: Serious delinquency

Loeber, 1993: Authority Conflict Pathway

Oppositional/defiant

Stage 1: Starts before 12yrs with stubborn behaviour

Stage 2: Defiance & disobedience

Stage 3: Authority avoidance

Risk factors

Variables/Characteristics of individuals and/or their environment (e.g., family, neighborhood) that increase the probability of an adverse outcome

Not mutually exclusive and more risk factors -> greater likelihood for offending

Individual Risk Factors

- Maternal substance use during pregnancy

- Delivery/Birth complications

- Temperament

- Substance use

- Low verbal intelligence & delayed language development

- Presence of aggressive behaviour in childhood

Familial Risk Factors: Environmental

- Poor parental supervision & monitoring

- Inconsistent & harsh/abusive discipline

- Low parental involvement

- Parental conflict

- Child abuse, neglect & Maltreatment

Familial Risk Factors: Parental Attributes

- Parental aggression

- Poor parental attachment

- Parental loss or divorce

- Parental mental health problems

- Heavy parental alcohol use

- Family criminality

School Risk Factors

- Poor academic achievement

- Low school commitment

- Low educational aspirations

- Truancy or not attending school

- Suspension & expulsions

Peer Risk Factors

- Associating with antisocial peers

- Peer approval/support of antisocial behaviour

- Gang affiliation

Community Risk Factors - Low SES Neighbourhood

- Opportunity to witness ASB

- Opportunity to learn

- Opportunity to associate with antisocial peers

- ASB may be reinforced

- May have increased access to weapons

Protective Factors

Variables/Characteristics that buffer effects of risk factors, thus reduce the risk/likelihood of a negative outcome occurring

Individual Protective Factors

- Intelligence (above-average) & commitment to education

- Values, beliefs & attitudes rejecting of ASB

- Perception peers do not tolerate ASB

- Utilize flexible coping skills, problem solving, conflict resolution, anger management & critical thinking

- Sense of control, reflective rather impulsive

- Sociable, social skills

- Positive/easy temperament

- Seek social support

- Being female

- Good planning

Familial Protective Factors

- Positive parent & home environment qualities

- Parental supervision

- Clear & consistent discipline/parenting

- Supportive relationship with any adult

- Secure attachment to an important other

- Positive adult role models (despite adversity)

School Protective Factors

- Commitment to school & academic achievement

- Bonding to school values/norms

- Academic success

- Participation in extra curricula activities

- Success at non-delinquent activities

Peer Protective Factors

- Associating with prosocial peers

- Non-delinquent peer support

Children (10 - 13 years) Offending in Aotearoa New Zealand

- 10+year olds: can only be prosecuted for murder & manslaughter

- 12-13 years: Offences with maximum penalty of 14+ years

Young people/Youth (14 - 17 years) Offending in Aotearoa New Zealand

Can be charged with any offence

Child & Youth Offending NZ Statistics

- Majority are male: 70-80% Gap

- Majority are apprehended for minor offences

Trends in Child & Youth Offending NZ Statistics

- Property offences consistently most common i.e., dishonesty type offenses

- Increasing youth apprehension for violence

- Overall decline in apprehensions for children & youth

Youth Justice System in NZ

Recognizes children & youth as developmentally different to adults

Three Elements of Youth Justice System in NZ

1. Accountability

2. Restitution/Compensation

3. Rehabilitation

Child Apprehensions

Majority dealt with police youth aid alternative action and warned/caution

Youth Apprehensions:

Majority dealt with police youth aid alternative action and warned/caution

Most dealt at police level but more youth justice system involvement compared to child

Arms of Youth Justice System in NZ

- Alternative Action

- Family Group

- Conference (FGC)

Youth Court

Alternative Action

a police diversionary response that involves a plan between the youth, their parents/caregivers, and the police, aiming to address the offending without formal prosecution

flexible and focuses on developing relationships

Family Group Conferences (FGC)

- Implemented with more serve cases and if individual has not made any progress in Alternative Action

- accountability, responsibility, & rehabilitation

- flexible: any plan that helps the young person not reoffending

Two Types of FGC

- Intention to charge

- Court ordered

FGC: Entitled Members/Attendees

- Young person, family/whanau, support

- Youth Justice Coordinator/Convener (YJC) & YJ Social Worker

= Youth Advocate (lawyer), Lay Advocate

- Police &/or victim/s Victims tend not to join

- Other parties with relevant Information

FGC: Outcomes

Make recommendations: e.g., apology, reparation, community service, donation to charity, curfew, intervention services (counselling or training)

Discontinue proceedings, formal caution

Youth Court

- More informal than adult court

- More developmentally responsive for child

- Must be formally charged with an offense

- Serious cases

- Closed Court

- cases are 'proven' in the youth court (not convicted)

- Can have defended hearing if denies charge

- If charges proved, then court ordered FGC is held & FGC plan is approved by Court -> Go back to FGC

Youth Court Outcomes: Fulfill their FGC Plan

discharge

Youth Court Outcomes: Do Not Fulfill their FGC Plan

- Fines & other restitution

- Rehabilitation

- Parenting programmes

- Mentoring programmes

- Orders

Examples of Youth Court Orders

- Community work

- Supervision with activity

- Supervision with residence

Rangatahi Youth Court

Youth courts is based in Marae and with more culturally conscious actions for Māori young people

Justice Involved Youth: Interventions

Goal is to change the youths behaviour.

Focus on the child, be collaborative with the child (i.e., what are their goals), address range of areas of functioning & multi- modal, and include family & broader social context

Different Levels of Interventions

Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary

Primary Intervention Strategies

- Groups of at risk children & families - Implemented prior to delinquency

- Aim to reduce likelihood ASB will occur later

Secondary Intervention Strategies

- Strategies for those with identified behaviour problems (e.g., Police, school)

- School-based

- Attempt to reduce frequency

Tertiary Intervention Strategies

Attempt to reduce recurrence

Intervention: LCP/Persistent Group

- Need for early intervention is indicated

- Needs will vary

- Treatment plan should be individualised & informed by assessment

Effectiveness of Intervention

Research shows interventions with youth are more effective than detention & deterrence

Best Intervention Methods

Behavioural & cognitive-behavioural treatments

Worst Intervention Methods

Purely deterrent & supervisory interventions can have slightly negative outcomes (may cause more harm)

Common Types of Interventions

- Social skills programmes

- Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT)

- Parenting programmes

- Family therapy e.g., Multisystemic Therapy (MST)

- Alternative / vocational education

- Prosocial activities

- Intervention for mental health or substances (alcohol & other drugs)

Four Components of Effective Interventions

- Programme factors

- Treatment context

- Individual (offender) factors

- Evaluation methods

Family Therapy - Multisystemic Therapy (MST)

Form of therapy that is systemic, focuses on family communication/parenting skills, occurs in family home, and not manualized, but has core principles, thus is flexible

MST: Results

Mixed

May be no better than other options, or effects on variables not assessed

Functional Family Therapy

An intensive, flexible, family-based intervention that focuses on problematic communication in families and communication patterns in order to

modify the maladaptive patterns & increase adaptive behaviours

Bootcamps

Modelled after military training

- Strict schedules

- Group discipline

- Drills & strenuous physical activity

Outcomes of Bootcamps

- Made no difference to recidivism or increased recidivism

- Reoffend more quickly

- Some support for those with aftercare and/or therapeutic components

- Psychological improvements

- Short-term, no lasting change

Effective Interventions

- Focus on behavioural functioning

- Multi-dimensional treatment

- Professionally guided programme integrity

- Treatment approaches: CBT & Family Systems and Social Learning

- Theory

Treatment framework which builds on youth's strengths

- Social climate: about human services

- Motivation to engage and give them a sense of autonomy/control