History 1020 Final Study Guide, Blair, Auburn

Potsdam Conference

• Definition: Meeting of Allied leaders to plan post-WWII Europe.

• When: July–August 1945.

• Where: Potsdam, Germany.

• Started: After Germany’s surrender, Allies needed to decide on Europe’s reconstruction.

• Ended: Agreement on occupation zones, tensions arose between U.S. and USSR.

Containment

• Definition: U.S. foreign policy to stop the spread of communism.

• When: Late 1940s–1989 (Cold War).

• Where: Global (especially Europe, Asia, Latin America).

• Started: In response to Soviet expansion after WWII.

• Ended: With the end of the Cold War and Soviet collapse.

Truman Doctrine

• Definition: U.S. policy pledging to support nations resisting communism.

• When: Announced March 1947.

• Where: Initially Greece and Turkey, then worldwide.

• Started: Due to communist threats in Greece and Turkey.

• Ended: Evolved into broader Cold War policies (like Marshall Plan).

Rectification Campaigns

• Definition: Chinese Communist campaigns to purge incorrect ideas and strengthen party loyalty.

• When: Mainly 1942–1944 (early ones); repeated later under Mao.

• Where: China, especially Yan'an.

• Started: Mao sought to centralize and control Communist ideology.

• Ended: Consolidated Mao’s leadership within the CCP.

Satellite States

• Definition: Countries under heavy political, economic, and military influence of another (mainly USSR).

• When: Late 1940s–1991.

• Where: Eastern Europe (e.g., Poland, Hungary, East Germany).

• Started: Soviet occupation after WWII.

• Ended: Collapse of communism in Eastern Europe.

Mao Zedong

• Definition: Leader of Chinese Communist Revolution and founding father of the People's Republic of China.

• When: 1893–1976.

• Where: China.

• Started: Rose to power through the Long March (1934–35) and Chinese Civil War.

• Ended: Died in 1976, major figure of 20th-century communism.

Pan-Africanism

• Definition: Movement to unify African people globally and promote independence from colonial rule.

• When: Late 19th century to present, peaked mid-20th century.

• Where: Africa and diaspora (e.g., U.S., Caribbean).

• Started: As resistance to racism and imperialism.

Ended: Continues today, but major impact during African decolonization (1950s–1970s).

Mahatma Gandhi

• Definition: Leader of Indian independence movement against British rule using nonviolence.

• When: 1869–1948.

• Where: India.

• Started: Led movements like Salt March (1930), Quit India (1942).

• Ended: Assassinated in 1948 after India’s independence in 1947.

Swaraj

• Definition: Indian concept meaning "self-rule"; Gandhi’s goal for India.

• When: Popularized early 20th century.

• Where: India.

• Started: As part of opposition to British colonialism.

• Ended: Realized with Indian independence in 1947.

Sun Yat-sen

• Definition: Chinese revolutionary leader; "Father of Modern China."

• When: 1866–1925.

• Where: China.

• Started: Led 1911 Revolution that ended Qing Dynasty.

• Ended: Died in 1925; his ideas influenced both Nationalists and Communists.

Easter Rising

• Definition: Armed insurrection by Irish republicans against British rule.

• When: April 1916.

• Where: Dublin, Ireland.

• Started: Planned during WWI to exploit Britain’s wartime distraction.

• Ended: Suppressed by British forces after a week; leaders executed, sparking public sympathy.

Authoritarianism

• Definition: Political system with strong central power and limited political freedoms.

• When: Throughout history, common in 20th century (e.g., interwar period).

• Where: Worldwide (e.g., Germany, Italy, Spain, USSR).

• Started: Often arises during crises (economic depression, war).

• Ended: Some regimes collapsed (e.g., fall of Franco’s Spain 1975); others continue today.

Mussolini

• Definition: Italian Fascist leader and dictator from 1922 to 1943.

• When: 1883–1945.

• Where: Italy.

• Started: Rose to power after March on Rome (1922).

• Ended: Overthrown and executed in 1945 during WWII.

Fascism

• Definition: Far-right authoritarian ideology emphasizing nationalism, dictatorship, and militarism.

• When: 1920s–1940s (main peak).

• Where: Italy, Germany, Spain, others.

• Started: Reaction to post-WWI instability, fear of communism.

• Ended: Defeated in WWII (1945), but remnants linger in fringe movements.

Nuremberg Laws

• Definition: Nazi racial laws stripping Jews of citizenship and rights.

• When: 1935.

• Where: Nazi Germany.

• Started: Codified Nazi racial ideology into law.

• Ended: Repealed after Nazi defeat in 1945.

Kristallnacht

• Definition: "Night of Broken Glass" — organized Nazi attacks on Jewish businesses, synagogues, and homes.

• When: November 9–10, 1938.

• Where: Germany and Austria.

• Started: After a German diplomat was killed by a Jewish teenager.

• Ended: Led to increased Jewish persecution and concentration camps.

Militarist Government of Japan

• Definition: Period when military leaders dominated Japanese politics.

• When: 1930s–1945.

• Where: Japan.

• Started: Economic hardship and nationalistic fervor drove military control.

• Ended: Defeated in WWII, U.S. occupation began 1945.

Lebensraum

• Definition: Nazi policy advocating territorial expansion for German living space.

• When: 1930s–1945.

• Where: Eastern Europe (Poland, USSR).

• Started: Central idea in Hitler’s "Mein Kampf."

• Ended: Collapsed with Nazi defeat in 1945.

February Revolution

• Definition: Uprising that overthrew Russia’s Tsar Nicholas II.

• When: March 1917 (February in Russian calendar).

• Where: Petrograd (now St. Petersburg), Russia.

• Started: Mass protests over war losses, food shortages.

• Ended: Tsar abdicated; Provisional Government formed.

D-Day

• Definition: Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France (Normandy).

• When: June 6, 1944.

• Where: Normandy, France.

• Started: Planned as Operation Overlord to open a Western front.

• Ended: Successful beachhead; led to liberation of Western Europe.

Island Hopping

• Definition: U.S. military strategy of capturing strategic islands in the Pacific during WWII.

• When: 1943–1945.

• Where: Pacific Ocean (e.g., Guadalcanal, Iwo Jima).

• Started: To bypass heavily fortified Japanese islands.

• Ended: Led to U.S. reaching Japan’s doorstep by 1945.

Hiroshima

• Definition: First city targeted by an atomic bomb.

• When: August 6, 1945.

• Where: Hiroshima, Japan.

• Started: U.S. dropped "Little Boy" bomb to force Japan’s surrender.

• Ended: Massive destruction; Japan surrendered soon after Nagasaki bombing.

Total War

• Definition: War that involves all aspects of society (economy, civilians, industry) to support military effort.

• When: Particularly during WWI and WWII.

• Where: Global conflicts (Europe, Asia, Pacific).

• Started: Industrialization allowed mass mobilization.

• Ended: Continued into Cold War with preparation for nuclear total war.

Arsenal of Democracy

• Definition: Term used by FDR describing the U.S. role in supplying Allied nations during WWII.

• When: 1940s.

• Where: United States.

• Started: Before direct U.S. entry into WWII, via Lend-Lease Act.

• Ended: Shifted fully into active participation after Pearl Harbor.

The Blitz

• Definition: German bombing campaign against Britain during WWII.

• When: September 1940 – May 1941.

• Where: London and other major UK cities.

• Started: After failure to win the Battle of Britain.

• Ended: Luftwaffe shifted tactics; Britain endured and survived.

Holocaust

• Definition: Systematic genocide of Jews and other minorities by Nazi Germany.

• When: 1941–1945.

• Where: Germany, occupied Europe.

• Started: Escalated from persecution to extermination ("Final Solution").

• Ended: Liberated by Allied forces; estimated 6 million Jews killed

Soviets

• Definition: Councils of workers and soldiers, especially influential in Russian Revolution.

• When: 1917 onwards.

• Where: Russia.

• Started: Formed spontaneously to organize protests.

• Ended: Became basis for Soviet government structure.

Bolsheviks

• Definition: Radical Marxist faction led by Lenin, seized power in 1917 Russian Revolution.

• When: Founded 1903; seized power 1917.

• Where: Russia.

• Started: Split from Mensheviks over tactics.

• Ended: Became ruling Communist Party of the Soviet Union

Stalin

• Definition: Leader of the Soviet Union from mid-1920s until 1953.

• When: 1878–1953.

• Where: USSR.

• Started: Rose to power after Lenin’s death.

Ended: Ruled until death; remembered for brutal dictatorship and WWII leadership

Collectivization

• Definition: Soviet policy of consolidating individual farms into collective farms.

• When: Late 1920s–1930s.

• Where: Soviet Union.

• Started: Stalin aimed to boost agricultural output and control peasants.

• Ended: Caused massive famines (e.g., Holodomor); largely complete by late 1930s

Treaty of Versailles

• Definition: Peace treaty that ended WWI, punishing Germany harshly.

• When: Signed June 28, 1919.

• Where: Versailles, France.

• Started: Negotiated by Allies to settle postwar order.

• Ended: Imposed reparations, lost territories, and military restrictions on Germany; resentment fueled WWII.

Self-Determination

• Definition: Principle that peoples have the right to choose their own sovereignty and political status.

• When: Popularized after WWI (1918–1919).

• Where: Global (especially in Europe and colonies).

• Started: Promoted by Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points.

• Ended: Became key idea in decolonization after WWII.

Bright Young Things

• Definition: Nickname for a group of young, wealthy British socialites in the 1920s.

• When: 1920s.

• Where: London, United Kingdom.

• Started: Post-WWI cultural rebellion against traditional norms.

Ended: Faded with the onset of the Great Depression

Under-consumption

• Definition: Economic theory where insufficient consumer demand leads to economic stagnation or depression.

• When: Especially discussed after the 1929 crash.

• Where: United States, Europe.

• Started: Noted during the Great Depression as industries produced more than people could afford to buy.

• Ended: Influenced New Deal and Keynesian economics.

Keynesian Economic Policy

• Definition: Economic theory advocating government intervention to moderate economic cycles.

• When: Developed 1930s, especially during Great Depression.

• Where: United Kingdom, United States.

• Started: Proposed by economist John Maynard Keynes.

• Ended: Dominated policy until 1970s; revived after 2008 crisis.

Lord Mountbatten

• Definition: British admiral and last Viceroy of India who oversaw independence and partition.

• When: 1900–1979.

• Where: Britain, India.

• Started: Appointed to expedite British withdrawal from India (1947).

• Ended: Partitioned India into India and Pakistan; later assassinated by IRA.

Mohammed Ali Jinnah

• Definition: Leader of the Muslim League; founder of Pakistan.

• When: 1876–1948.

• Where: British India/Pakistan.

• Started: Advocated for Muslim interests within India.

Ended: Led to the creation of Pakistan in 1947; served as its first Governor-General

Calcutta Killings

• Definition: Violent riots between Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta during partition.

• When: August 1946.

• Where: Calcutta (now Kolkata), India.

• Started: Muslim League's call for "Direct Action Day" escalated tensions.

Ended: Left thousands dead; increased momentum toward partition.

Kwame Nkrumah

• Definition: Leader of Ghanaian independence; first Prime Minister and President of Ghana.

• When: 1909–1972.

• Where: Ghana (formerly Gold Coast).

• Started: Led protests and strikes for independence.

• Ended: Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence (1957); Nkrumah later ousted in coup.

Non-Aligned Movement

• Definition: Group of countries not formally aligned with any Cold War bloc (U.S. or USSR).

• When: Founded 1961.

• Where: Global (first summit in Belgrade, Yugoslavia).

• Started: Led by leaders like Nehru (India), Tito (Yugoslavia), and Nasser (Egypt).

• Ended: Still exists today but weakened after Cold War.

Nehru

• Definition: First Prime Minister of independent India and a leader of the Indian independence movement.

• When: 1889–1964.

• Where: India.

• Started: Close ally of Gandhi; emphasized modernization and socialism.

Ended: Led India until his death in 1964; established non-aligned foreign policy.

Zionist

• Definition: Supporter of the movement for the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

• When: Late 19th century onward.

• Where: Europe, Palestine.

• Started: Political Zionism began with Theodor Herzl’s writings (1896).

• Ended: Realized with the creation of Israel in 1948, but the movement continues.

Arab-Israeli War

• Definition: Conflict between Israel and several Arab nations after Israel’s creation.

• When: 1948–1949 (First Arab-Israeli War).

• Where: Palestine/Israel.

• Started: Arab states rejected Israel’s UN-backed declaration of independence.

• Ended: Armistice agreements in 1949; Israel expanded its territory.

Ho Chi Minh

• Definition: Vietnamese nationalist leader; founder of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam).

• When: 1890–1969.

• Where: Vietnam.

• Started: Fought French colonial rule; led Viet Minh during WWII.

• Ended: Led North Vietnam until death; symbol of Vietnamese independence.

Viet Cong

• Definition: Communist insurgents fighting South Vietnam and the U.S. during the Vietnam War.

• When: 1950s–1975.

• Where: South Vietnam.

• Started: Formed to oppose U.S.-backed South Vietnamese government.

• Ended: Victory after Fall of Saigon, April 1975.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

• Definition: U.S. Congress resolution giving President Johnson broad military powers in Vietnam.

• When: August 1964.

• Where: U.S./Vietnam.

• Started: After alleged attacks on U.S. ships by North Vietnam.

Ended: Used to escalate U.S. involvement; repealed in 1971 as war grew unpopular

Baby Boom

• Definition: Surge in birth rates following WWII.

• When: 1946–1964.

• Where: Primarily United States, but also in other Allied countries.

• Started: Prosperity and return of soldiers after WWII.

• Ended: Birth rates normalized during the 1960s.

Kitchen Debate

• Definition: 1959 informal exchange between U.S. Vice President Nixon and Soviet Premier Khrushchev about capitalism vs communism.

• When: July 24, 1959.

• Where: American National Exhibition in Moscow, USSR.

• Started: Nixon promoted American consumer goods and freedom; Khrushchev defended Soviet system.

• Ended: Debate ended amicably but symbolized Cold War tensions.

Stasi

• Definition: Secret police of East Germany, known for surveillance and repression.

• When: 1950–1990.

• Where: East Germany (German Democratic Republic).

• Started: Created to maintain the Socialist Unity Party’s control.

• Ended: Dissolved after the fall of the Berlin Wall and German reunification.

Second Red Scare

• Definition: Period of intense anti-communist suspicion in the U.S. during the early Cold War.

• When: Late 1940s–1950s.

• Where: United States.

• Started: Sparked by fears of Soviet espionage (e.g., Alger Hiss, Rosenbergs).

• Ended: Declined after McCarthy’s influence collapsed in 1954.

Prague Spring

• Definition: Period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia under Alexander Dubček.

• When: 1968.

• Where: Czechoslovakia.

• Started: Dubček’s reforms promoted “socialism with a human face.”

• Ended: Crushed by Soviet-led Warsaw Pact invasion in August 1968.

Red Guards

• Definition: Radical youth groups in China supporting Mao’s Cultural Revolution.

• When: 1966–1969.

• Where: China.

• Started: Encouraged by Mao to attack “old customs,” “old ideas.”

• Ended: Chaos forced government to suppress them by late 1969.

Mohammed Reza Shah

• Definition: Last Shah (king) of Iran before the 1979 Islamic Revolution.

• When: 1919–1980; ruled 1941–1979.

• Where: Iran.

• Started: Installed with British and Soviet backing during WWII.

• Ended: Overthrown during Iranian Revolution led by Ayatollah Khomeini.

Ayatollah Khomeini

• Definition: Iranian religious leader who led the 1979 Islamic Revolution.

• When: 1902–1989.

• Where: Iran.

• Started: Criticized Shah’s westernization and repression.

Ended: Established Islamic Republic and ruled as Supreme Leader until his death

Détente

• Definition: Easing of Cold War tensions between the U.S. and USSR.

• When: 1960s–1970s.

• Where: Global (especially U.S., USSR, Europe).

• Started: Began after Cuban Missile Crisis; included arms control treaties (SALT I).

• Ended: Collapsed after Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979).

MPLA

• Definition: Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola; socialist party that led Angola’s independence struggle.

• When: Founded 1956; prominent 1975–present.

• Where: Angola.

• Started: Fought against Portuguese colonial rule.

Ended: Won independence in 1975; dominated Angolan politics since.

Solidarity

• Definition: Polish labor movement that challenged communist rule.

• When: Founded 1980.

• Where: Poland.

• Started: Led by Lech Wałęsa; grew out of shipyard strikes in Gdańsk.

• Ended: Legalized after fall of communism; pivotal in ending communist rule in Eastern Europe.

Perestroika

• Definition: Gorbachev’s policy of restructuring the Soviet economy and government.

• When: Mid-to-late 1980s.

• Where: Soviet Union.

• Started: Introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985.

Ended: Contributed to the weakening and eventual collapse of the USSR in 1991.

Gorbachev

• Definition: Last leader of the Soviet Union (General Secretary and later President).

• When: 1931–2022.

• Where: Soviet Union.

• Started: Rose to power in 1985; initiated reforms (Perestroika and Glasnost).

• Ended: Resigned after Soviet Union collapsed in 1991.

Glasnost

• Definition: Gorbachev’s policy of openness, encouraging free expression and transparency.

• When: 1985–1991.

• Where: Soviet Union.

• Started: Aimed to reduce corruption and encourage debate.

• Ended: Helped unleash public criticism that weakened Soviet authority.

Tiananmen Square

• Definition: Site of massive pro-democracy protests in China, violently suppressed by the government.

• When: Spring 1989.

• Where: Beijing, China.

• Started: Students demanded democratic reforms and freedoms.

• Ended: Chinese military crushed protests on June 4, killing hundreds to thousands.

Four Modernizations

• Definition: Deng Xiaoping’s reforms to modernize agriculture, industry, defense, and science/technology in China.

• When: Launched in late 1970s.

• Where: China.

• Started: Shifted China toward a market-oriented economy after Mao’s death.

Ended: Foundation for China’s rapid economic growth today.

Soviet-Afghan War

• Definition: Conflict where the Soviet Union intervened to support Afghanistan’s communist government against insurgents (Mujahideen).

• When: 1979–1989.

• Where: Afghanistan.

• Started: Soviets invaded to bolster a struggling communist regime.

• Ended: Soviets withdrew after costly fighting; contributed to Soviet collapse.

Osama bin Laden

• Definition: Founder of al-Qaeda, responsible for 9/11 attacks.

• When: 1957–2011.

• Where: Saudi Arabia; Afghanistan; global.

• Started: Gained fame fighting Soviets in Afghanistan; later turned to global jihad against the U.S.

• Ended: Killed by U.S. forces in Pakistan in 2011.

EU (European Union)

• Definition: Political and economic union of European countries aiming for regional integration.

• When: Founded 1993 (roots back to 1957 treaties).

• Where: Europe.

• Started: Maastricht Treaty created the EU from previous economic communities.

• Ended: Still exists today; faced challenges like Brexit.

World Bank

• Definition: International financial institution providing loans and grants for development projects.

• When: Founded 1944 (Bretton Woods Conference).

• Where: Global; headquartered in Washington, D.C., USA.

• Started: Established to help rebuild Europe post-WWII; shifted focus to global development.

• Ended: Still active today, central to global economic policy.

Balkan War

• Definition: Refers mainly to the Yugoslav Wars — brutal ethnic conflicts after Yugoslavia’s breakup.

• When: 1991–2001.

• Where: Balkans (former Yugoslavia — Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, etc.).

• Started: Nationalist tensions and ethnic divisions after communism collapsed.

• Ended: Through various peace treaties (e.g., Dayton Accords, 1995) and NATO interventions.

Rwanda

• Definition: Site of 1994 genocide where ethnic Hutus killed around 800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus.

• When: April–July 1994.

• Where: Rwanda (Central Africa).

• Started: Triggered by assassination of Rwandan president; deep ethnic tensions.

• Ended: Stopped after Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front seized power.

Big Pillar

possibly a mishearing/miswriting of "Big Leap" (Great Leap Forward) or a term relating to major reforms.)

FLN

• Definition: National Liberation Front; Algerian independence movement against French rule.

• When: Founded 1954.

• Where: Algeria.

• Started: Launched guerrilla warfare against French forces.

• Ended: Achieved independence in 1962 after the Algerian War.

colon

Christian Algerians of European decent, who were the most stridently opposed to Algerian independence

During the Algerian War

1950’s