Rutgers General Biology 115 Final Exam

Memory

storage

Learning

using information

Gene Expression

how your DNA is used

Signal Transduction

when your expression occurs

Neuronal Plasticity

modified after birth, meaning connections in the brain can be remodeled by experiences

Synapses

tiny spaces between neurons, tells brain what is important

encode

permanent connections in the brain

store

memory in cerebral cortex

sensory memory

experience; if you pay attention it goes to short term memory or working memory

short term memory

what you are aware of now, held for a short time. Holds 7+- 2 items

ex: plan, strategize, organize, create organizers, outline

Long term memory

permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

ex: practice evaluations, discussions, self evals

long-term potentiation (LTP)

a process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

ex:

Studying in Segments

Review every few days

Determine what you know

Try to explain the material to someone else

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

ex: lectures/ notes

Evolution

Change in a kind of organism over time; process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient organisms.

emergent properties

New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases.

Levels of Biological Organization (largest to smallest)

biosphere, ecosystems, communities, populations, organisms, organs and organ systems, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules

The Scientific Method

Observation, Hypothesis, Experiment, Data Collection, Conclusion, and Retest (if needed)

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Predictions

specific statements that can be directly and unequivocally tested

Theory

A broad explanation of natural events that is supported by strong evidence.

Law

statement of what always happens/ is

CHON

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen make up 96% of living matter

Protons

Charge: +

Location: nucleus

Role in atom: identity and mass

Electrons

Charge: -

Location: orbiting nucleus

Role in atom: reactions

Neutrons

Charge: no charge

Location: nucleus

Role in atom: mass

Potential Energy

stored energy

ex: further away e- is from the nucleus, the more potential energy e- has

Molecules

Groups of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds

chemical bonds

the attractive force that holds atoms or ions together

Electronegativty

a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons

Covalent Bonds (Nonpolar)

Strength: strongest

Between: atoms

E-Sharing: equally

Electronegativity: same

Solubility: non-polar solvents

Example: CH4, O2, H2

Covalent Bonds (Polar)

Strength: strongest

Between: atoms

E-Sharing: unequally

Electronegativity: < 2 difference

Solubility: polar solvents

Example: H2O

Ionic Bonds

Strength: Not so strong (b/c of water)

Between:atoms

E-Sharing: transferred

Electronegativity: > 2 difference

Solubility: more soluble in a polar solvent

Example: Table Salt (NaCl)

Van der Waals interactions

Strength: weak alone, strong together

Between: molecules

E-Sharing:

Electronegativity:

Solubility:

Example: Gecko Feet

Hydrogen bonds

Strength: fairly strong

Between: molecules

E-Sharing:

Electronegativity:

Solubility: Polar solvents

Example: water molecules

hydroxyl group (-OH)

Compound Name: alcohol

Polar/ Non: polar

Hydrophilic: yes

Acid or Base: neither

Example: Ethanol

Carbonyl group (C=O)

Compound Name: Aldehyde (to the side), Ketone (surrounded)

Polar/ Non: Polar

Hydrophilic: yes

Acid or Base: neither

Example: Acetone (Ketone), Propanal (Aldehyde)

Carboxyl group (-COOH)

Compound Name: Carboxylic Acids

Polar/ Non: polar

Hydrophilic: yes

Acid or Base: acid

Example: Acetic Acid

Amino group (-NH2)

Compound Name: Amines

Polar/ Non: polar

Hydrophilic: yes

Acid or Base: Base

Example: Glycine (amino acid)

Sulfhydryl Group (SH)

Compound Name: Thiols

Polar/ Non: Polar

Hydrophilic: Yes

Acid or Base: Neither

Example: Cysteine

Phosphate Group (PO4H2)

Compound Name: Organic Phosphate

Polar/ Non: Polar

Hydrophilic: Yes

Acid or Base: Acid

Example: Glycerol Phosphate

Methyl Group (CH3)

Compound Name: Methyl hydrocarbon

Polar/ Non: nonpolar

Hydrophilic: hydrophobic

Acid or Base: neither

Example: 5 methyl cytosine

Carbohydrates (CH2O)

Monomers: Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose)

Bonds between: glycosidic linkages

Polymers: Di-Saccharide (sucrose), Polysaccharide

(cellulose)

Hydro..: philic

Functional Groups: Carboxyl, Hydroxyl, Carbonyl

Functions: A) energy storage, B) structure

Examples: A)Starch, Glycogen, B)Cellulose, Chitin

Lipids

Monomers:

Bonds between: ester linkages

Polymers:

Hydro..: phobic

Functional Groups: glycerol and fatty acids

Functions: Energy storage (fats), Communication (steroids), Phospholipid membranes

Examples: saturated: butter, unsaturated: olive oil

Proteins

Monomers: amino acids

Bonds between: peptide bonds

Polymers: polypeptides

Hydro..: philic and phobic

Functional Groups: amino, carboxyl

Functions: enzymes, structure, transport

Examples:

Nucleic Acid

Monomers: nucleotides

Bonds between: Phosphodiester Bonds

Polymers: DNA, RNA

Hydro..: philic

Functional Groups: phosphate

Functions: Storage of genetic info, Heredity, Protein Production

Examples: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, DNA

primary structure of protein

Bonds between: Amino Acids (Peptide bonds)

Function groups involved?: No

secondary structure of protein

Bonds between: Amines + Carboxyls (Hydrogen bond)

Function groups involved?: No

tertiary structure of protein

Bonds between: R- groups (All types of bonds)

Function groups involved?: Yes

quaternary structure of protein

Bonds between: Two or more Different folded

polypeptide chains

Function groups involved?: Yes

prebiotic soup hypothesis

Where: Surface of the Earth

Energy Source: Atmospheric discharge

(Lightning, Volcanoes, Meteoroids, Radiation)

Evidence: Miller and Urey (created synthetic atmosphere using CH4, H2O vapor, H2, and NH3)

CHON: atmosphere CH4, H2O, H2, and NH3

Catalysts:

Author: Oparin & J.B.S Haldane

iron-sulfur world hypothesis

Where: ocean floor, hypothermal vents

Energy Source: hydrothermal vents

Evidence/ Experiments:

CHON: hydrothermal vents

Catalysts: iron

Authors:

SEQ Abiogenesis

Synthesis of monomers, synthesis of macromolecules, protocells, self replication

Prokaryotic Cells

Size: 1-10 um

Organelles: no membrane bound organelles

Structures: cell wall, plasma membrane, cytosol, chromosomes, ribosomes, nucleoid

DNA Storage: nucleoid

DNA: yes

Evolutionary history: via protocells and self-replication

Eukaryotic Cells

Size: 10 -100 um

Organelles: mitochondria, nucleus, etc

Structures:

DNA Storage: nucleus

DNA: yes

Evolutionary history: endosymbiosis

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for making ribosomes, DNA, and proteins

Ribosomes

synthesize proteins/ polypeptides

Rough ER

proteins folded and modified, secrete glycoproteins, distribute transport vesicles, cell membrane factory

Smooth ER

synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, and detoxifies the body while storing calcium ions

Golgi

modifies ER products, sorts and packages, manufactures macromolecules, ships products using transport vesicle

Lysosomes

food vacuole stores food, contractile vacuoles pump out water, central vacuoles hold water

Plasma Membrane

exports proteins out of the cell, controls what comes in and out

mitochondria

Produces the energy a cell needs to carry out its functions

vesicles

transports materials within the cell

Exocytosis

Moves waste and proteins out of a cell as through vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes.

receptor-mediated

A type of endocytosis in which the cell acquires bulk quantities of specific substances, even though they may not be very concentrated in the extracellular fluid.

endergonic reaction

An anabolic chemical Reaction that stores free energy from its surroundings through dehydration synthesis.

exergonic reaction

A catabolic, spontaneous Chemical Reaction that releases energy through hydrolysis.

Calvin cycle products

glucose, ADP, NADP+

glycolysis products

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

oxidation of pyruvate products

2 acetyl COA, 2 NADH, 2 CO2

Citric acid products

6NADH

4CO2

2FADH2

2ATP

oxidative phosphorylation products

2 pyruvate, 2 H2O, 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 H+ ions

G1 phase

Most of a cells life

Cell functions, communications, protein manufacturing

S Phase

Chromosomes duplicate (DNA synthesis)

Sister chromatids form

Kinetochores aka protein handles will form from centromere

G2 Phase

Centrosomes duplicate

Prophase (mitosis)

Chromosomes condense

nuclear envelop dissolves

mitotic spindle forms

Metaphase (mitosis)

Longest phase of Mitosis

Chromosomes align on metaphase plate

Anaphase (Mitosis)

Cohesion proteins cleaved

Sister chromatids separate

Telophase and Cytokinesis (mitosis)

2 new daughter cells form

Nuclear envelope reforms

Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm

asexual reproduction

A reproductive process that involves only one parent and produces offspring that are identical to the parent.

sexual reproduction

A reproductive process that involves two parents that combine their genetic material to produce a new organism, which differs from both parents

Prophase I (Meiosis)

homologous chromosomes pair up and form tetrads, crossing over occurs

Metaphase I (Meiosis)

Tetrads are lined up at the metaphase plate; Spindle fibers attach

Anaphase I (Meiosis)

Homologous chromosomes separate

Telophase I (Meiosis)

Cytokinesis occurs, the result are two haploid daughter cells

Prophase II (meiosis)

A new spindle forms around the chromosomes

Metaphase II (meiosis)

chromosomes line up on metaphase plate

Anaphase II (meiosis)

Sister chromatids split and head toward opposite poles

Telophase II and Cytokinesis (Meiosis)

The cells have now been formed into 4 new cells, and the nuclear membranes come back. These cells are known as haploid cells, and each has half the usual number of chromosomes

Law of Segregation

Mendel's law that states that the pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete

law of independent assortment

Mendel's second law, stating that allele pairs separate from one another during gamete formation

Frederick Griffith Experiment

injected mice with disease- causing strain of bacteria: mice died

injected mice with harmless strain: lived

took of a culture of heat-killed harmful strain and harmless bacteria and mixed them and put in mice and mice died

Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment

isolate DNA, protein and others, mix with normal bacteria to prove DNA is transforming substance

Hershey-Chase Experiment

confirmed that DNA is the genetic material because only radiolabeled DNA could be found in bacteriophage-infected bacteria

Base pairing rules

Purine with pyrimidine

cytosine pairs with guanine

adenine pairs with thymine in DNA

adenine pairs with uracil in RNA

Transcription

information in DNA used to synthesize RNA

Translation

decoding of a mRNA message into a polypeptide chain