AP Psychology Exam Review Packet 2025

General review flashcards covering research methods, neurobiology, cognition, development, learning, social psychology, personality, and psychological disorders from the AP Psychology 2025 curriculum.

Reliability

The consistency of results when a test or survey is administered to participants multiple times.

Validity

The extent to which a test or survey actually measures what it is intended to measure.

Population

The entire group that a researcher wants to study, such as all U.S. college students.

Sample

The specific group of individuals who are actually participating in a study, such as $500$ randomly sampled students.

Generalizability

The extent to which the results of a study can be applied to the larger population; this may be limited if the sample is not representative.

Correlational study

A research method used to examine the relationship between two variables, such as hours of social media use and reported levels of anxiety.

Meta-analysis

A method where a researcher collects and statistically analyzes results from many different studies on the same topic.

Case study

An in-depth investigation of a single individual, such as the study of "H.M." after his brain surgery.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method where the researcher observes subjects in their natural environment without intervention or guidance.

Experiment

A research method in which participants are randomly assigned to groups to test the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable.

Independent variable

The factor in an experiment that is manipulated by the researcher, such as the type of surrogate mother offered to baby monkeys.

Dependent variable

The factor in an experiment that is measured to see how it changed, such as the amount of time spent clinging to a surrogate mother.

Operational definition

A specific description of how a variable is measured or defined in a study, such as defining "clinging" as the time spent with each mother.

Random assignment (RA)

The process of randomly placing participants into different experimental groups to ensure that groups are similar at the start.

Random sampling (RS)

The process of randomly selecting participants from a larger population to represent that population in a study.

Double-blind study

A research design where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the real treatment or a placebo to prevent bias.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a data set, calculated as $8$ for the sample data provided.

Median

The middle score in a distribution; in the provided sample data, it is $8$.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score in a data set, which was $8$ in the provided example.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set, calculated as $13$ in the example.

Standard deviation

A measure of how spread out the data is; a larger value indicates the data is more spread out from the mean.

Statistically significant

A result is considered this if the p-value is $< 0.05$, meaning differences are unlikely to be due to chance.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A university's ethics committee that must approve a study before it can be conducted.

Informed Consent

A formal agreement made by an adult to participate in a psychological study.

Informed Assent

The agreement of a child to participate in a study, accompanied by parental consent.

Confidentiality

The ethical requirement that a participant's name and information be kept private after a study.

Confederates

Actors in a study who are instructed to behave in a specific way to test the reactions of the participant.

Debriefing

The process at the end of a study where the researcher reveals the true purpose of the research to the participant.

Nature

The influence of genetics and heredity on traits, such as an innate ability to solve complex math problems.

Nurture

The influence of environment and experience on development, such as becoming a pianist through years of practice.

Eugenics

A discredited and unethical practice involving selective breeding to promote "desirable" traits in humans.

Twin Studies

Research comparing identical twins raised apart to determine the influence of genetics versus environment.

Central Nervous System

The branch of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord, where reasoning and higher-level thinking occur.

Peripheral Nervous System

The part of the nervous system containing sensory neurons that transmit information from the body to the brain.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that triggers the "fight or flee" response, spiking heart rate and dilating pupils.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and slows heart rate after a stressful event.

Somatic Nervous System

The branch of the nervous system responsible for conscious, voluntary muscle movements.

Autonomic Nervous System

The branch of the nervous system responsible for involuntary functions like heartbeat and digestion.

Dopamine

A reward neurotransmitter that makes an individual feel happy or euphoric.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter associated with mood improvement; often targeted by antidepressants.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter essential for memory; its absence is linked to memory difficulties.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps an individual relax and reduces anxiety.

Melatonin

A hormone that increases in the evening to make an individual sleepy as it gets dark.

Leptin

A hormone that signals to the brain that the body is full and should stop eating.

Ghrelin

A hormone that increases before meals to trigger feelings of extreme hunger.

Adrenaline

A hormone that causes a rush of energy before physically intense activities like bungee jumping.

Oxytocin

A hormone released during breastfeeding and bonding that creates feelings of emotional closeness.

Agonist

A substance that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter, such as morphine mimicking endorphins.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks the action of a neurotransmitter, such as naloxone blocking opiates.

All-or-Nothing Principle

The rule that a neuron will only fire if it reaches a certain level of stimulation; otherwise, it will not fire at all.

Action Potential

The electrical impulse that travels down a neuron's axon.

Refractory Period

The brief moment after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again.

Myasthenia Gravis

A disorder that causes muscles to weaken over time, making it difficult to keep the eyes open.

Multiple Sclerosis

A disorder caused by damage to the myelin sheath in the nervous system, leading to muscle weakness.

Reflex Arc

An automatic process where a body part pulls away from a stimulus before the brain processes the pain.

Tolerance

The process where more of a substance is needed to achieve the same effect previously felt.

Withdrawal

The experience of physical symptoms like nausea and headaches after quitting a substance like nicotine.

Corpus Callosum

The structure connecting the left and right brain hemispheres; sometimes severed to manage seizure disorders.

Pituitary Gland

A brain structure that works with the hypothalamus to release hormones like luteinizing hormone.

Reticular Activating System

A brain structure helpful for waking up quickly in response to a stimulus like a phone ring.

Hemispheric Specialization

The concept that the left hemisphere is more specialized for logic and math, while the right is more specialized for creativity.

Temporal Lobe

The lobe of the brain responsible for processing auditory information and listening.

Somatosensory Cortex

The region in the parietal lobe that processes the sensation of pain and touch.

Wernicke’s Area

An area in the brain where damage results in fluent speech that does not make sense (aphasia).

Broca’s Area

An area in the brain where damage results in difficulty speaking clearly.

Amygdala

A brain structure that triggers fear responses.

Frontal Lobe

The brain structure used for complex decision-making and planning for the future.

Limbic System

A group of brain structures, including the amygdala and hippocampus, that processes stress and emotion.

Cerebrum

The largest part of the brain responsible for complex thinking, reasoning, and decision-making.

Occipital Lobe

The lobe of the brain responsible for processing visual information, such as seeing colors.

Parietal Lobe

The lobe of the brain that processes the sense of touch; damage here can cause difficulty understanding tactile sensations.

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

The organization where the right hemisphere of the brain controls the left side of the body.

Brainstem/Medulla

A brain structure that controls essential life functions like heart rate, breathing, and digestion.

Hippocampus

The brain structure responsible for storing and remembering childhood and long-term memories.

Thalamus

A relay station in the brain that processes sensory information and directs it to the appropriate areas.

Hypothalamus

The brain structure that regulates temperature, hunger, and thirst.

Brain Plasticity

The brain's ability to reorganize itself to compensate for lost functions, such as after partial vision loss.

Prosopagnosia

A disorder where an individual is unable to recognize faces, even those of family members.

Blindsight

A condition where an individual can identify the direction of moving objects without consciously perceiving them visually.

Cerebellum

The brain structure that helps fine-tune muscle movements to maintain posture and balance.

Jet Lag

The feeling of exhaustion experienced after flying across different time zones.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

A disorder where an individual physically acts out dreams because they do not experience muscle paralysis during REM sleep.

Somnambulism

The act of sleepwalking, often without memory of the event.

Circadian Rhythm

The internal process that naturally wakes an individual up at about the same time each day.

Activation Synthesis

The theory that the brain synthesizes random neural signals during sleep into a dream.

REM Rebound

The phenomenon of spending more time in REM sleep after a period of poor sleep.

Insomnia

Persistent trouble falling or staying asleep at night.

Memory Consolidation

The process occurring during sleep where the brain processes and stores information in long-term memory.

Narcolepsy

A condition characterized by falling asleep unexpectedly during the day, regardless of activity.

Hypnagogic Sensations

The feeling of floating or drifting that can occur while falling asleep.

Sleep Apnea

A disorder where breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep, causing frequent waking.

REM Sleep

A sleep stage where the brain is highly active and vivid dreams occur, while the body remains paralyzed.

Transduction

The process by which sensory organs convert physical energy, like sound waves, into neural signals.

Olfaction

The sense of smell used to detect odors like fresh-baked bread.

Volley Theory

The theory that neurons fire in rapid succession to encode very high frequency or high pitch notes.

Phantom Limb

The sensation of itching or pain in a limb that has been amputated.

Vestibular Sense

The sense that detects motion and balance through structures in the inner ear.

Dichromatism

A form of color blindness that makes it difficult to distinguish between colors like red and green.

Sound Localization

The brain's ability to use differences in timing and intensity between the two ears to locate a sound.

Farsightedness

A vision condition where it is difficult to read books or see objects up close.