AP Psychology Exam Review Packet 2025
Psychology Research Methods (0.1-0.3)
Research Scenario: Stress in U.S. College Students
Context: A psychologist studies stress levels in college students across the United States. He administers a survey to students randomly sampled from different California universities.
Reliability: The researcher ensures consistency by testing if the survey yields the same results when given to participants multiple times. Retesting students confirms reliability.
Validity: The researcher compares survey scores with an accepted stress survey to ensure he is actually measuring stress. This process tests for validity.
Population: The entire group being studied, which in this case is "All U.S. college students."
Sample: The actual participants in the study, which are the students who completed the survey.
Generalizability: Because the study only sampled California students, its ability to apply findings to the broader population of all U.S. students is limited.
Research Methods Identification
Correlational Study: Examining the relationship between hours of social media use and reported levels of anxiety.
Meta-analysis: A psychologist collects and statistically analyzes results from different studies regarding the effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for depression.
Case Study: An in-depth study of a single individual, such as "H.M.," who had parts of his brain removed to treat epilepsy and subsequently could not form new long-term memories.
Naturalistic Observation: Observing children at a public playground to see how they share and take turns without adult guidance or interference.
Experiment: Research where participants are randomly assigned to groups (e.g., one group sleeps and the other ) to test the effect on a specific outcome (memory test).
Classic Study: Harry Harlow’s Contact Comfort
Setup: Baby rhesus monkeys were separated from mothers and placed with two surrogates: a wire mother providing milk and a soft cloth mother providing no milk.
Independent Variable (IV): The type of mother (Wire vs. Cloth).
Operational Definition of IV: Offering the wire mother compared to the cloth mother.
Dependent Variable (DV): Clinging behavior to the cloth mother.
Operational Definition of DV: Amount of time spent with each mother.
Findings: Monkeys preferred the cloth mother for "contact comfort." Monkeys raised without social contact showed severe emotional problems (mating, parenting, and interaction issues).
Random Processes
Random Assignment (RA): Randomly telling participants to either sleep or before a test; randomly putting patients into CBT or mindfulness groups; assigning kids to play video games with red vs. blue villains.
Random Sampling (RS): Selecting high schoolers across the U.S. for a survey; a computer selecting Instagram users from the total user base; using a national database to select parents.
Study Controls
Double-blind Study: A study where neither the patients nor the researchers know who receives the real drug and who receives the placebo. This is designed to prevent bias.
Statistics (0.4)
Calculations for the Data Set: 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 8, 10, 12, 15
Mean:
Median: The middle value is
Mode: The most frequent number is
Range:
Normal Distribution and Percents
A person with a mean score has scored higher than of other participants.
A score Standard Deviation (SD) above the mean translates to scoring higher than of participants.
If Jolene is in the percentile on her SAT, she scored higher than of other students.
Histograms and Skew
Negative Skew: Data Set A shows a negative skew because of a low outlier.
Standard Deviation: Data Set B has a larger standard deviation than Data Set A because the data is more spread out.
Statistical Significance
p-value: A p < 0.05 indicates that the data is statistically significant. This means the observed difference between means is likely a meaningful difference and unlikely to be due to chance.
Ethics (0.5)
Institutional Review Board (IRB): An ethics committee that must approve studies (e.g., a study on children and social anxiety) before they begin.
Informed Consent: An adult (e.g., Josie, ) agreeing to participate after being informed of the study's nature.
Informed Assent: A child (e.g., Teddy, ) participating because their parents agreed.
Confidentiality: Keeping a participant's (e.g., Anne's) name and personal information private.
Confederates: Actors used in a study (e.g., the actors in a conformity study giving wrong answers) to manipulate the social environment.
Debriefing: Revealing the true purpose of the study to the participant at the end of the experiment.
Overview of the Nervous System (1.1 – 1.2)
Nature vs. Nurture
Nurture: Environmental influences (e.g., Elena becomes a pianist through years of practice despite no natural gift).
Nature: Genetic influences (e.g., Hiroshi’s math ability appearing to be inherited from his mathematician father).
Twin Studies: Research on identical twins (e.g., Noah and Felix) separated at birth who show similar personalities, indicating genetic influence.
Eugenics: The unethical, discredited practice of promoting "selective breeding" for desirable traits (e.g., the early 20th-century promotion that only people like Hans should reproduce).
Nervous System Divisions
Central Nervous System (CNS): The brain and spinal cord; responsible for complex reasoning (e.g., Justin deciding which AP class to take).
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Sensory and motor neurons connecting the CNS to the rest of the body (e.g., Jessica feeling the burn from a hot pan).
Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary muscle movements (e.g., Kofi consciously moving his arm to throw a baseball).
Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions like heartbeat and digestion (e.g., Fatima not having to think to make her heart beat).
Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for "fight or flee" (e.g., Diego’s heart rate spiking and pupils dilating when seeing a bear).
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body after a stressor (e.g., Diego relaxing after escaping the bear).
The Neuron, Neurotransmitters, and Drugs (1.3)
Neuron Specifics and Firing
Action Potential: An electrical impulse sent down the axon.
All-or-Nothing Principle: A neuron fires completely or not at all; it must reach a specific stimulation threshold.
Refractory Period: The brief moment after a neuron fires during which it cannot fire again.
Myelin Sheath: Insulation for the axon; damage to this leads to Multiple Sclerosis (muscle weakness).
Neuron Parts:
Dendrite: Receives incoming signals.
Soma (Cell Body): The main body of the cell.
Axon: Passes the impulse away from the cell body.
Terminal Buttons: Release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Neurotransmitters and Hormones
Acetylcholine: Essential for memory (James); deficiency is linked to Myasthenia Gravis (muscle weakness).
Dopamine: Reward and happiness (Andre).
Serotonin: Mood regulation; boosted by antidepressants (Lucy).
GABA: Inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps relaxation (Raj); increased by anti-anxiety meds.
Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter essential for memory and learning (Aisha).
Endorphins: Natural painkillers that create euphoria (Eliza).
Substance P: Transmits pain signals to the brain (Miguel).
Norepinephrine: Increases alertness during emergencies (Kamal).
Melatonin: Hormone that increases in the evening to induce sleep (Yuki).
Ghrelin: Hormone that increases hunger (Ali).
Leptin: Hormone that signals fullness (Grace).
Oxytocin: Hormone linked to emotional bonding (Mariah).
Adrenaline: Hormone providing an energy rush (Theo).
Psychoactive Drugs
Stimulant: Drugs that increase alertness (Caffeine for DeShawn; Cocaine for Luca).
Depressant: Drugs that slow reaction time (Alcohol for Jonah).
Hallucinogen: Drugs like LSD that cause surreal hallucinations (Ming).
Opioids: Synthetic or natural painkillers like Heroin or Morphine; they mimic endorphins (Sophie, Kendall, Darius).
Agonist: A chemical that mimics a neurotransmitter.
Antagonist: A chemical that blocks a neurotransmitter (e.g., Naloxone blocking opiates for Sophia).
Reuptake Inhibitor: Prevents neurons from reabsorbing neurotransmitters (e.g., SSRIs for Jamal).
Withdrawal: Nausea and headaches after quitting a substance (Ravi).
Tolerance: Needing more of a substance to achieve the same effect (Pablo and coffee).
Addiction: Struggling to stop using a substance despite risks (Zara).
Neural Processes
Sensory Neurons: Transmit sensations (like cold) from skin to brain (Jalen).
Motor Neurons: Send signals from the brain to muscles (Yara kicking a soccer ball).
Reflex Arc: Automatic response to stimuli (e.g., Isa pulling her hand away from a hot pan before processing pain).
The Brain (1.4)
Structures and Functions
Brainstem/Medulla: Controls essential functions like breathing, heart rate, and digestion.
Reticular Activating System: Helps wake someone up from sleep (Javier).
Thalamus: Sensory relay station directing information to appropriate brain areas (Carlos).
Cerebellum: Fine-tunes muscle movements, posture, and balance (Maya cycling).
Limbic System: Group of structures (Amygdala, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus) processing emotion and stress (Nia).
Amygdala: Triggers fear responses (Noah and spiders).
Hippocampus: Stores and processes memories (Isabella).
Hypothalamus: Regulates temperature, hunger, and thirst (Leila).
Pituitary Gland: Works with the hypothalamus to release hormones; the "master gland."
Cerebrum: Largest part of the brain; responsible for complex thinking and reasoning (Luca playing chess).
Lobes and Cortexes
Frontal Lobe: Decision-making and planning (David).
Parietal Lobe: Contains the Somatosensory Cortex; processes touch and pain (Emily).
Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information (Musa seeing red).
Temporal Lobe: Processes auditory information (Maya listening to music).
Brain Specialization and Damage
Broca’s Area: Responsible for clear speech production; damage causes difficulty speaking (Natalie).
Wernicke’s Area: Responsible for speech comprehension; damage causes fluent but nonsensical speech (Luca).
Corpus Callosum: Connects left and right hemispheres; sometimes severed to manage seizures (Brody).
Hemispheric Specialization: Left hemisphere typically handles logic/math (Liam); right handles creativity (Maya).
Contralateral Hemispheric Organization: Right hemisphere controls the left side of the body and vice versa (Zane).
Brain Plasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize itself after damage (Marco).
Lesioning: Intentionally damaging brain tissue for research (Anna).
Prosopagnosia: An inability to recognize faces (Tom).
Blindsight: Ability to identify moving objects without conscious visual perception after occipital lobe damage (Rachel).
Brain Scans
EEG: Monitors brain waves during sleep (Rachel).
fMRI: Shows brain activity/blood flow during tasks like puzzle-solving (Luis).
Sleep (1.5)
Sleep Stages and Mechanics
Circadian Rhythm: Internal clock for waking and sleeping (Olivia).
REM Sleep: Stage with vivid dreams and brain activity, though the body is paralyzed (Omar).
NREM: Stages with slow brain waves and no dreaming (Ethan).
Memory Consolidation: Brain processing and storing long-term info during sleep (Sophie).
Restoration: Rejuvenating the body after a long day (Juan).
REM Rebound: Spending more time in REM after sleep deprivation (Amira).
Sleep Phenomena and Disorders
Insomnia: Persistent trouble falling/staying asleep (Carmen).
Sleep Apnea: Repeatedly stopping breathing during sleep (Jorge).
Narcolepsy: Falling asleep unexpectedly throughout the day (Victor).
Somnambulism: Sleepwalking (Sophia).
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Physically acting out dreams due to lack of paralysis (Tom).
Activation Synthesis: The theory that dreams are the brain synthesizing random neural firing (Lucy).
Hypnagogic Sensations: Feeling like floating or falling while drifting to sleep (Ravi).
Jet Lag: Exhaustion from flying across time zones (Ethan).
Split Brain Case Study
Subject (Jose): He has a severed corpus callosum. If a word is flashed to his right visual field, he can say it aloud (SHOE).
Reasoning: The right eye (visual field) communicates with the left hemisphere, which is responsible for speech.
Sensation (1.6)
Thresholds and Principles
Transduction: Converting external stimuli (sound waves) into neural signals.
Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus of the time (Ben hearing a faint tone).
Just-noticeable Difference (JND): The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection (Emily with weights).
Weber’s Law: Detection of stimuli differences becomes harder as the size/intensity of the stimuli increases (Ava with boxes).
Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (Lila and perfume).
Vision
Structure: Cornea → Pupil → Iris → Lens (Accommodation) → Retina → Optic Nerve.
Rods: Photoreceptors for low-light vision (Maya's midnight walk).
Cones: Photoreceptors for color and detail (Sophia looking at a painting).
Fovea: Central part of retina with highest clarity (Raj reading fine print).
Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye; no photoreceptors present (David).
Accommodation: Eye muscles adjusting the lens to focus images (Mark).
Theories:
Trichromatic Theory: Color vision via three types of cones (Red, Blue, Green) (Ravi).
Opponent Process Theory: Color seen via opposing pairs; explains afterimages (green after red) (Eliana).
Conditions: Nearsightedness (Carlos), Farsightedness (Helen), Dichromatism (Ethan), Monochromatism (Lina).
Audition
Amplitude: Determines loudness (Maria playing flute).
Wavelength: Determines pitch/frequency.
Theories:
Place Theory: Pitch perceived based on the location of cochlea stimulation (John).
Frequency Theory: Rate of nerve firing corresponds to sound frequency (Mark).
Volley Theory: Neurons fire in rapid succession to encode very high pitches (Jasmine).
Sound Localization: Brain processes timing/intensity differences between ears to find sound sources (Lily hearing a dog).
Other Senses
Olfaction: Sense of smell (Daniel).
Gustation: Sense of taste (Jack).
Kinesthetic Sense: Detecting location of body parts in space (Aiden).
Vestibular Sense: Detecting motion and balance via the inner ear (Chloe spinning).
Gate Control Theory: Rubbing an injury (like a knee) reduces pain signals to the brain (Saiah).
Synesthesia: Cross-modal perception (e.g., seeing red when hearing "A") (Sam).
Phantom Limb: Feeling sensation in a missing limb (Dante).
Pheromones: Chemical signals influencing attraction (Amira).
Perception (2.1 – 2.2)
Processing and Attention
Bottom-Up Processing: Processing features (shape, fur) before identifying an object as a dog (Baby Jack).
Top-Down Processing: Using context to understand messy handwriting (Emma).
Automatic Processing: Remembering breakfast without effort (Liam).
Cocktail Party Effect: Hearing one's name in a loud room (Sophia).
Inattentional Blindness: Not noticing a street performer while texting (David).
Change Blindness: Not realizing a waiter was replaced by someone else (Anna).
Gestalt Principles (Identifying Patterns)
Closure: Seeing dots in a circular pattern as a whole circle.
Similarity: Grouping items that look alike.
Proximity: Grouping items that are close together.
Figure-Ground: Distinguishing an object from its background.
Depth and Motion Perception
Binocular Cues: Retinal Disparity (image shift between eyes) and Convergence (eyes moving inward for close objects).
Monocular Cues:
Interposition: Blocked objects seen as farther away.
Relative Size: Smaller looking objects perceived as farther.
Linear Perspective: Parallel lines (train tracks) appearing to converge.
Relative Clarity: Hazy objects seem farther.
Phi Phenomenon: Perceiving two blinking lights in sequence as movement.
Stroboscopic Movement: Perceiving flipped drawings as animation (Nathan).
Visual Cliff: A test for depth perception in babies (Baby Tim).
Perceptual Influences
Perceptual Set: Expecting a horror movie to be scary, leading to misinterpreting shadows (Linda).
Perceptual Constancies: Recognizing a door as the same shape despite viewing angles (Jake).
Thinking, Problem-Solving, and Judgment (2.2)
Strategies and Cognitive Concepts
Algorithm: Step-by-step formula (e.g., math formula for Sophia).
Heuristic: Mental shortcuts (Guessing a password via common patterns for Liam).
Availability Heuristic: Fearing plane crashes more than car accidents due to media coverage (John).
Representativeness Heuristic: Assuming a quiet person is a librarian rather than a football player (Sarah).
Prototype: The best example of a category (Golden retriever for "dog").
Schema: Organized framework of knowledge (Mike’s knowledge of cars).
Metacognition: Reflecting on one's own thinking or study habits (Alex).
Priming: Seeing "yellow" makes one recognize "banana" faster.
Convergent Thinking: Narrowing answers down to one best choice.
Divergent Thinking: Coming up with multiple unique ideas.
Biases and Obstacles
Confirmation Bias: Only reading news that aligns with personal political views (Amy).
Belief Perseverance: Refusing to change beliefs despite proof (Lisa).
Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Staying in a bad movie because the ticket was already paid for (Olivia).
Gambler’s Fallacy: Believing a machine is "due" for a win.
Framing: Being more likely to buy yogurt labeled " fat-free" than " fat."
Functional Fixedness: Struggling to use a book as a doorstop.
Mental Set: Trying the same old failed method on a new puzzle (Emily).
Insight: Suddenly realizing a riddle's solution (Jake).
Memory (2.3 – 2.7)
Memory Models and Types
Multi-Store Model: Sensory → Short-term → Long-term (James).
Working Memory: Holding numbers in mind while solving a problem (Emma).
Sensory Memory: Iconic (visual flash; Jake seeing lightning) and Echoic (sound; Sophia hearing "hello").
Episodic Memory: Events (First trip to Disneyland).
Semantic Memory: Facts (Paris is the capital of France).
Procedural Memory: Skills (Tying shoes without thinking).
Flashbulb Memory: Vividly remembering where one was during a shocking event.
Encoding and Retrieval
Chunking: Breaking digits into groups (Credit card numbers).
Mnemonic Devices: Using acronyms like "My Very Educated Mother…"
Method of Loci: Placing items mentally in a house.
Effortful Processing: Studying via detailed notes (Ava).
Shallow Processing: Memorizing by appearance (Structural Processing: bold vs. plain text).
Deep Processing: Creating meaningful connections (Semantic Processing).
Recall: Essay writing without prompts.
Recognition: Multiple-choice test (Jessica).
Primacy Effect: Best recall for the first items on a list.
Recency Effect: Best recall for the last items heard.
Forgetting and Memory Issues
The Forgetting Curve: Rapid loss followed by leveling off (Spanish vocab for Tom).
Proactive Interference: Old info (last year's date) blocking new info (current date).
Retroactive Interference: New info (new locker code) blocking old info (old code).
Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories (Mia).
Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memories from before an accident (David).
Source Amnesia: Forgetting where info was learned.
Misinformation Effect: Misremembering details after hearing others' versions (Anna).
Constructive Memory: Recalling a story that never happened (Carlos).
Infantile Amnesia: Inability to remember infancy.
Retention Strategies
Spacing Effect: Studying over several weeks.
Testing Effect: Quizzing oneself (Olivia).
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Neural pathways becoming more efficient with repeated study (Sarah).
Intelligence (2.8)
Testing and Measures
General Intelligence (): Performing well across math, reading, and logic tasks (Aisha).
Mental Age: A -year-old scoring at a -year-old level (Jamal).
Achievement Tests: Measuring what has been learned (End-of-year history exam for Tariq).
Aptitude Tests: Measuring potential (Medical school entrance exam).
Standardization: Giving every student the same instructions and conditions (Luca).
Normal Curve: SAT scores forming a bell-shaped distribution (Fatima).
Reliability and Validity
Split-Half Reliability: Splitting a test in half to see if both halves produce similar scores (Ravi).
Test-Retest Reliability: Taking the same personality test twice and getting the same results (Jorge).
Content Validity: Ensuring a math test actually includes algebra and geometry (Zainab).
Predictive Validity: An entrance exam accurately predicting medical school performance (Hana).
Psychological Factors
Flynn Effect: IQ scores rising over generations (Samuel's grandfather vs. now).
Growth Mindset: Believing skill can improve with effort (Amina).
Fixed Mindset: Believing intelligence is static (Robert).
Stereotype Threat: Performance suffering due to anxiety about negative stereotypes (Amira).
Stereotype Lift: Performance improving due to positive confidence from a stereotype (Kenji).
Developmental Psychology (3.1 – 3.6)
Physical and Biological Development
Longitudinal Research: Tracking one person's memory for .
Cross-Sectional Research: Comparing different age groups (, , ) in the same year.
Fine Motor Skills: Buttoning a shirt (Mia).
Gross Motor Skills: Learning to walk (Daniel).
Teratogens: Harmful substances (alcohol) impacting a fetus (fetal alcohol syndrome).
Secondary Sex Characteristics: Developing breast tissue.
Menarche: First menstrual period (age ).
Spermarche: Producing sperm (Michael).
Biological Sex: Phenotypically male traits with XY chromosomes (Jack).
Gender Identity: Identifying as a woman (Emma).
Cognitive Development (Piaget and Others)
Sensorimotor Stage: Exploring via senses (Baby Ava mouth-exploration); Object Permanence (Noah knowing a hidden toy still exists).
Preoperational Stage: Age ; Egocentrism (Liam assuming others see what he sees); Animism (Grace thinking her bear gets lonely).
Concrete Operational Stage: Age ; understanding logical operations and Conservation (Ethan understanding water volume remains equal in different glasses).
Formal Operational Stage: Age ; abstract reasoning about politics (Mia).
Assimilation: Calling a cow a "big dog" based on existing schemas (Lucas).
Accommodation: Learning a car is different from a truck (Jonathan).
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Solving math with a teacher’s help (Ethan).
Theory of Mind: Realizing others have different thoughts (Emma, age ).
Intelligence: Crystallized (Vast trivia knowledge at ) and Fluid (Quickly solving a new puzzle at ).
Social-Emotional Development (Erikson and Attachment)
Trust vs. Mistrust: Learning to count on a caregiver (Baby Lucas).
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt: Potty training (Ava, age ).
Initiative vs. Guilt: Playing explorer (Ethan, age ).
Industry vs. Inferiority: Gaining schoolwork confidence (Sophia, age ).
Identity vs. Role Confusion: Questioning political views (Jasmine, age ).
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Settling down with a partner (Liam, age ).
Generativity vs. Stagnation: Mentoring young workers (Jacob, age ).
Integrity vs. Despair: Reflecting on life with pride (Maria, age ).
Attachment Styles:
Secure: Upset when mom leaves, happy on return (Lucas, age ).
Anxious: Extremely hard to calm down on return (Mia, age ).
Avoidant: No interest in caregiver on return (Giancarlo, age ).
Disorganized: Happy sometimes, upset/uninterested other times (Jacob, age ).
Parenting Styles: Authoritarian (strictly demands obedience), Authoritative (enforces rules but supports/listens), Permissive (whatever child wants), Neglectful (uninvolved).
Adolescent Thinking and Identity
Personal Fable: Believing no one understands their feelings (Ethan).
Imaginary Audience: Feeling everyone is watching them (Hailey).
Identity States (Marcia):
Diffusion: No idea what to do, avoiding discussion (Jake).
Foreclosure: Taking a path simply because parents did (Emily).
Moratorium: Exploring various classes and internships (Ryan).
Achievement: Deciding after reflection and shadowing (Maria).
Bronfenbrenner’s Systems
Microsystem: Relationships with parents.
Mesosystem: Interaction between school and home.
Exosystem: Dad's job affecting home life.
Macrosystem: Cultural values.
Chronosystem: Comparing life today vs. in .
Learning and Conditioning (3.7 – 3.9)
Classical Conditioning Terms
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Food.
Neutral Stimulus (NS): Sound of a container opening.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Sound after association.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): Automatic salivation.
Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation to the sound.
Generalization: Fearing all large dogs after one bite (Lisa).
Discrimination: Fearing pit bulls but not golden retrievers (Ben).
Taste Aversion: Nausea at the smell of sushi after getting food poisoning (Sarah).
Extinction: Loss of fear after repeated exposure (David and elevators).
Spontaneous Recovery: Sudden resurface of fear after a bang (John).
Operant Conditioning Concepts
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a reward (getting a bonus) to increase behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (applying sunscreen to avoid burn) to increase behavior.
Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus (speeding ticket) to decrease behavior.
Negative Punishment: Removing a reward (taking away a phone) to decrease behavior.
Shaping: Rewarding small steps toward a goal (training a dog to roll over).
Continuous Reinforcement: Sticker for every homework assignment completed (Emily).
Reinforcement Schedules:
Fixed-Ratio: Free coffee after buying (Ben).
Variable-Ratio: Unpredictable wins on slot machines (Sophia).
Fixed-Interval: Paid every two weeks regardless of performance (Lisa).
Variable-Interval: Checking email at random times (David).
Advanced Learning Concepts
One-Trial Conditioning: Touching a hot stove once (Jake).
Biological Preparedness: Inherited survival instinct (Fear of snakes for Emma).
Counterconditioning: Linking a rabbit with candy to cure a phobia (Tom).
Learned Helplessness: Giving up after failing despite effort (Mark).
Instinctive Drift: Raccoons rubbing coins together instead of dropping them due to instincts.
Latent Learning: Learning a school route but only showing it when walking alone (Tom).
Insight Learning: Suddenly realizing how to assemble a puzzle (Max).
Observational Learning: Learning to cook by watching mom (Ethan).
Habituation: No longer noticing train sounds after living near tracks (Kelly).
Social Psychology (4.1 – 4.3)
Attribution Theory
Dispositional Attribution: Assuming someone is rude because they didn’t email back (Jamal).
Situational Attribution: Thinking a sidewalk is uneven after someone trips (Mei).
Fundamental Attribution Error: Blaming someone's anger on personality, not their situation (Elena).
Self-Serving Bias: Taking credit for success but blaming teams for failure (Amina).
Actor-Observer Bias: "I cut someone off because I'm in a rush; they did it because they're a jerk" (Kenji).
Locus of Control: Internal (believing grades improve because of study effort; Diego) vs. External (blaming the universe for not getting a job; Priya).
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Believing you are bad at speaking, getting nervous, and then stumbling (Tyrese).
Relative Deprivation: Feeling bad about a car after seeing a friend's luxury car (Noah).
Explanatory Style: Optimistic ("I didn't study enough") vs. Pessimistic ("I'm just bad at math").
Attitude and Prejudice
Ethnocentrism: Believing your country's holidays are the only "right" way (Sophia).
Cognitive Dissonance: Telling oneself an expensive jacket will help get a promotion to justify the cost (Darius).
In-Group Bias: Picking a fraternity brother for a team over someone better (Jacob).
Out-Group Homogeneity Bias: Thinking all football players don't care about school while knowing band members are diverse.
Scapegoat Theory: Blaming immigrants for a failing business (Alejandro).
Just-World Phenomenon: Thinking robbery victims "brought it on themselves" (Marisol).
Implicit Attitudes: Rating resumes with ethnic names lower while claiming to value diversity (Tariq).
Social Influence and Interaction
Normative Social Influence: Not correcting offensive jokes to avoid being excluded (Niko).
Informational Social Influence: Copying which fork to use at a dinner (Neha).
Conformity: Using slang because your friends do (Amira).
Obedience: Wearing a hard hat only because a supervisor said so (Jonas).
Groupthink: Ignoring flaws in a plan to avoid tension (Marco).
Group Polarization: Becoming more passionate about reform after a club meeting (Talia).
Social Facilitation: Playing piano better with an audience (Sergei).
Social Loafing: Putting less effort into a group presentation (Liam).
Deindividuation: Dancing wildly in a massive crowd due to anonymity (Raj).
Central Route to Persuasion: Choosing a car based on fuel efficiency data (Zara).
Peripheral Route to Persuasion: Buying a shake because an athlete is in the ad (Leo).
Individualism (Sweden/Sofia) vs. Collectivism (Yuna helping parents).
Social Reciprocity Norm: Helping someone because they helped you (Luis).
Social Responsibility Norm: Volunteering out of duty (Tomas).
Social Trap: Neighbors overusing a shared well until it dries up.
Superordinate Goals: Rival teams working together to fix a field.
Techniques: Foot-in-the-Door (Small petition then big cleanup); Door-in-the-Face (Asking for a week off then just a Friday).
Personality (4.4 – 4.5)
Psychodynamic and Defense Mechanisms
Psychodynamic Theory: Personality shaped by unconscious drives (Maria).
Ego: Compromising between skipping study for a concert (id) and needing to pass (superego).
Repression: Not remembering the details of an accident (Dario).
Regression: Sleeping with a stuffed animal after a breakup (Amara).
Reaction Formation: Showering a disliked classmate with compliments (Sasha).
Projection: Accusing a partner of being jealous when you are the one with trust issues (Keon).
Rationalization: Saying you didn't want a scholarship anyway after losing (Lucia).
Displacement: Snapping at a brother after being scolded by a boss (Takashi).
Sublimation: Using aggression to excel in boxing (Fatima).
Denial: Insisting gambling isn't an issue despite debt (Noah).
Projective Tests: Using drawings to explore hard-to-express feelings (Diego).
Other Personality Theories
Humanistic Theory: Focusing on self-actualization and the ideal self (Josh).
Unconditional Positive Regard: Loving someone regardless of failure (Abuela Rosa).
Social-Cognitive Theory: Interaction of personal factors, behavior, and environment (Anne).
Reciprocal Determinism: Outgoing behavior leading to joining teams which reinforces confidence (Tyrell).
Self-Efficacy: Believing you can master a skill despite early struggles (Mei).
Self-Esteem: Feeling value despite mistakes (David).
Real/Ideal Self: Working to close the gap between current state and leadership goals (Leo).
Big Five Traits (OCEAN)
Openness to Experience: Trying new foods and places (Anya).
Conscientiousness: Neat planners and double-checking work (Ali).
Extraversion: Gaining energy from crowds/parties (Zainab).
Agreeableness: Easy to get along with and avoiding conflict (Ethan).
Emotional Stability/Neuroticism: Staying calm under pressure (Yara).
Motivation and Emotion (4.6 – 4.7)
Motivational Theories
Drive-Reduction Theory: Drinking water to reduce thirst and restore balance (Niko).
Arousal Theory: Listening to music while studying to stay focused (Jin).
Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal performance levels (freezing at large crowds vs. small; Arjun).
Intrinsic Motivation: Building models because it is fun (Omar).
Extrinsic Motivation: Practicing violin to get a new phone (Sana).
Sensation-Seeking Theory: Craving high-sensation adventures like skydiving (Iris).
Instinct: Rooting reflex in newborns (Ayaka).
Theories of Emotion and Interaction
Universal Emotions: Recognizing grief across cultures and languages (Min-Jun).
Display Rules: Japanese cultural discouragement of public emotion (Yuki).
Facial-Feedback Hypothesis: Smiling during a bad day makes one feel better (Andres).
Broaden-and-Build Theory: Joy from volunteering leading to emotional growth (Maya).
Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts
Approach-Approach: Choosing between UCLA and NYU (Ravi).
Approach-Avoidance: Wanting to act in a play but fearing public speaking (Khadija).
Avoidance-Avoidance: Choosing between extra homework or cleaning the garage (Diego).
Health and Psychological Disorders (5.1 – 5.4)
Health and Coping
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion stages (Kai).
Problem-Focused Coping: Making a schedule to tackle workload (Jia).
Emotion-Focused Coping: Journaling/venting since the problem can't be fixed (Wes).
Tend-and-Befriend: Checking on neighbors after an earthquake (Sana).
Post-Traumatic Growth: Finding purpose (mentoring) after surviving cancer (Laila).
Hypertension: High blood pressure linked to stress (Felipe).
Immune Suppression: Getting colds during exam periods (Zara).
Eustress (Rush before a showcase) vs. Distress (Constant pressure at work).
Definitions and Perspectives on Disorders
Biopsychosocial Model: Depression via genetics, negative thoughts, and lack of support (Layla).
Diathesis-Stress Model: Genetic predisposition for Schizophrenia emerging after a friend's death (Jonas).
Behavioral Perspective: Changing compulsive hand-washing via reinforcement (Camila).
Cognitive Perspective: Challenging thoughts like "I'll fail anyway" (Ren).
Eclectic Approach: Using CBT and mindfulness for one client (Malik).
Culture-bound Disorder: "Amok" soul-stealing belief in the Philippines (Datu).
Stigma: Boss joking that depression makes one "too sensitive" (Nia).
Dysfunction: Anxiety preventing someone from holding a job (Elias).
Specific Disorders
Schizophrenia: Hallucinations (whispering names; Kenji) and Delusions of Grandeur (secret ruler of a kingdom; Omar) or Persecution (plotting to poison coffee; Fatima). Flat Affect (monotone voice; Isaac) or Word Salad (nonsensical speech; Salma).
Bipolar Disorder: Mania (impulsive spending/no sleep) followed by depression (Elijah).
Major Depressive Disorder: Feeling numb and pointless (Priya).
Personality Disorders:
Antisocial: Manipulating and breaking rules with no guilt (Leila).
Narcissistic: Bragging and anger when not praised (Marwan).
Borderline: Quickly idolizing then lashing out (Dante).
Avoidant: Avoiding events out of fear of rejection (Nadia).
Schizoid: Preferring isolation due to lack of interest (Anya).
Schizotypal: Belief in magical connections (Raj).
Anxiety and Trauma:
Panic Disorder: Racing heart and fear of dying (Jonah).
Social Anxiety Disorder: Terror of being laughed at (Arman).
OCD: Obsessions (imagining family hurt) and Compulsions (checking locks times).
PTSD: Nightmares and flinching after survival (Marisol).
Agoraphobia: Avoiding malls/crowds for fear of no escape (Mei-Ling).
Treatment (5.5)
Therapeutic Approaches
Person-Centered Therapy: Listening with Unconditional Positive Regard (Nia).
Active Listening: "So what I'm hearing is…" (James speaking to Lena).
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Identifying catastrophic thoughts and gradual exposure for flying (Dev).
REBT: Changing "I must be liked" to "It's okay if not everyone likes me" (Ben).
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT): Mindfulness and distress tolerance for BPD (Lourdes).
Systematic Desensitization: Deep breathing while imagining flying, then airport sounds, then visiting the airport (Ravi).
ABA: Rewards/stickers for eye contact (Leo).
Free Association: Saying "red… mother… rain…" to find unconscious links (Amir).
Biomedical and Historical Treatments
SSRIs: Managed symptoms for Julien.
Xanax: Increases calming GABA neurotransmitters (Farah).
Lithium: Mood stabilizer for manic/depressive cycles (Adrian).
ECT: Electrical currents for treatment-resistant depression (Tariq).
TMS: Non-invasive magnetic pulses.
Lobotomy: Historical surgery leaving patients emotionally blunted (Sandra).
Biofeedback: Watching heart rate on screen to learn to lower it (Hannah).
Ethics and Effects
Nonmaleficence: Avoiding worsening a patient’s symptoms (Dr. Jin).
Fidelity: Keeping sessions confidential and on time (Dr. Martinez).
Therapeutic Alliance: Feeling safe opening up to a counselor (Aya).
Tardive Dyskinesia: Facial twitching from long-term antipsychotic use (Luis).