Introduction to Memory

Recognition

Identifying information you’ve previously learned.

Encoding

The process of converting information into a form the brain can store.

Storage

Maintaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information when needed.

Three-Stage Multi-Storage Model

Memory is stored in three stages: sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting several seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Limited-capacity memory that holds information for about 20–30 seconds without rehearsal.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Relatively permanent storage of information.

Explicit Memory

Conscious memories of facts or experiences.

Semantic Memory

Facts and general knowledge.

Episodic Memory

Memories of personally experienced events.

Autobiographical Memory

Semantic and episodic memory about your own life.

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills and actions.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do something in the future.

Implicit Memory

Memories we don’t consciously think about, often skills or conditioned responses.

Working Memory Model

Short-term memory as an active system with multiple components.

Recall

Retrieving information without a cue.

Working Memory/Central Executive

Part of working memory that directs attention and coordinates information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Stores and manipulates visual and spatial information.

Phonological Loop

Stores and rehearses auditory information.

Shallow/Structural Encoding

Processing only physical or superficial features.

Levels of Processing

Deeper processing leads to better memory than shallow processing.

Deep/Semantic Encoding

Processing the meaning of information for better retention.

Effortful Encoding

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Automatic Encoding

Unconscious encoding of information.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new information to existing knowledge.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids using imagery or organization.

Metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking and learning processes.

Method of Loci

Associating information with familiar locations.

Hierarchies

Organizing information from general to specific.

Spacing Effect

Better learning when study sessions are spaced apart.

Massed Practice

Cramming information in a short time.

Distributed Practice

Spreading learning over multiple sessions.

Forgetting Curve

Shows how memory fades over time without rehearsal.

Testing Effect

Actively retrieving information enhances memory.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of synapses through recent activity, supporting learning.

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

Knowing something but being unable to recall it at the moment.

Proactive Interference

Old information interferes with learning new information.

Retroactive Interference

New information interferes with recall of old information.

Context-Dependent Memories

Recall is better in the same environment where encoding occurred.

State-Dependent Memories

Recall is better in the same emotional or physical state as encoding.

Mood-Congruent Memories

Tendency to recall memories matching your current mood.

Serial Positioning Effect

Tendency to remember first and last items better than the middle.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall of items at the end of a list.

Interleaving

Mixing different topics or problem types during study to improve retention.

Memory Consolidation

Stabilizing a memory for long-term storage.

Imagination Inflation

Imagining events increases confidence they actually happened.

Source Amnesia

Forgetting where a memory came from.

Misinformation Effect

Misleading information distorts memory.

Repression

Unconscious blocking of traumatic memories.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories from before a brain injury.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall early childhood memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after injury.

Dementia

Progressive decline in cognitive functioning, often involving memory loss.

Alzheimer’s Disease

A type of dementia involving memory loss and cognitive decline due to brain degeneration.