exam #1 west history

Features of Hominins

Hominins are the group of early human ancestors that set humans apart from other primates. Their main features include walking on two feet (bipedalism), using tools, and having larger brains compared to apes. These traits gave them the ability to adapt to new environments, create tools for survival, and develop social structures. They are important because these features were the foundation of human evolution and made the development of civilization possible.

Human Migration

Human migration refers to the movement of humans out of Africa and across the globe. Following herds of animals and changing climates, humans spread into Asia, Europe, Australia, and later the Americas. Migration was important because it spread human populations worldwide, led to cultural diversity, and showed humans’ ability to adapt to different climates and environments.

Late Paleolithic Cultural Transformation

This was a period when humans began creating more advanced stone tools, cave art, carvings, and religious practices. People began burying their dead and showing belief in an afterlife. They also worked in larger groups, which improved survival and communication. This transformation was important because it showed humans were not only surviving but also creating culture, imagination, and spiritual beliefs.

The (Last) Ice Age

The last Ice Age was a period of colder temperatures when glaciers covered much of the Earth. It forced humans to adapt by making clothes, building shelters, and controlling fire. As the ice melted, new lands became available and animals migrated, which pushed humans into new areas. This event is significant because it challenged humans to innovate and opened the door for farming after the ice ended.

Early Sedentary Cultures

These were the first groups of people to settle permanently in one location instead of moving around. They usually lived near rivers or fertile land where farming was possible. Sedentary life allowed people to build permanent houses, store food, and form larger communities. This was important because it led to villages, towns, and the first organized governments.

Domestication

Domestication is when humans controlled plants and animals for their own use. People farmed crops like wheat and barley and tamed animals such as goats, sheep, and cattle. Dogs were domesticated to help with hunting and protection. Domestication was significant because it gave people steady food sources, allowed population growth, and made farming possible.

Early Agriculture

Early agriculture was the shift from hunting and gathering to farming crops and raising animals. It began in areas such as the Fertile Crescent, China, and the Americas. Farming required more work but produced more food than hunting. Agriculture was important because it was the foundation for permanent settlements, population growth, trade, and civilizations.

Early Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia, the “land between the rivers,” was one of the first civilizations. People used irrigation to farm, built large cities, and developed governments. They also created writing (cuneiform) and complex social classes. Mesopotamia is important because it is the “Cradle of Civilization,” where many inventions and ideas like laws and writing began.

City-State

A city-state was an independent city with its own ruler, army, and surrounding farmland. In Mesopotamia, each city-state had its own gods, rulers, and culture. This was significant because city-states were the first form of organized political units. They allowed experimentation with government, law, and religion, which influenced later societies.

Cuneiform

Cuneiform was the world’s first writing system, created in Mesopotamia. It used wedge-shaped marks pressed into clay tablets. At first, it was used for keeping records of trade, but later it was used for laws, literature, and communication. Cuneiform is important because it allowed information to be recorded and passed down, which shaped history and government.

Sargon of Akkad

Sargon of Akkad was the first ruler to create an empire in Mesopotamia by conquering city-states and uniting them under his rule. He created the Akkadian Empire, which spread Mesopotamian culture and ideas across a large region. Sargon is important because he showed how powerful centralized rule could be and set the model for future empires.

Power in Late Mesopotamia

In late Mesopotamia, kings gained more control and often connected their power to religion, claiming they were chosen by the gods. Governments became more complex with laws, armies, and taxes. This was significant because it shows the rise of centralized power and the blending of religion and politics to maintain control.

 Chariots

Chariots were horse-drawn vehicles used in war and hunting. They gave armies greater speed and power in battle, especially in open terrain. Chariots were significant because they transformed warfare, giving empires with chariots a major advantage over enemies without them.

 Composite Bow

The composite bow was a powerful weapon made of wood, horn, and sinew. It was stronger and could shoot arrows farther than earlier bows. This weapon was important because it gave armies an advantage in battle, allowing them to strike from a distance with great force.

Mesopotamian Society

Mesopotamian society was organized into classes: kings and priests at the top, merchants and craftsmen in the middle, and farmers and slaves at the bottom. Religion played a major role, with temples at the center of cities. This is important because it shows how early societies were structured and how religion and government controlled daily life.

The Nile River

The Nile River in Egypt was the key to life because it provided water, fertile soil, and transportation. Its yearly floods allowed Egyptians to grow crops and support large populations. The Nile was significant because it made civilization in Egypt possible and shaped religion, trade, and culture.

 Egyptian Trade

Egypt traded goods like grain, gold, and papyrus with nearby regions. They received timber, ivory, and luxury goods in return. Trade connected Egypt with other civilizations and spread ideas, making it important for economic strength and cultural growth.

Nubia

Nubia was a region south of Egypt known for gold, trade, and strong kingdoms. At times, Egypt controlled Nubia, and at other times Nubia ruled parts of Egypt. Nubia is significant because it influenced Egyptian culture while also keeping its own identity.

Hyksos

The Hyksos were a group that invaded Egypt and ruled for about 100 years. They introduced new technology like the chariot and better bronze weapons. They were important because they changed Egyptian warfare and eventually inspired Egyptians to adopt stronger armies.

Pharaohs and Monuments

Pharaohs were the rulers of Egypt, considered both kings and gods. They built massive monuments such as pyramids and temples to show their power and connect themselves to the gods. These are significant because they demonstrate Egyptian religion, architecture, and the power of centralized rulers.

Egyptian Religion

Egyptian religion was polytheistic, meaning they worshipped many gods connected to nature and life. They believed in an afterlife, which is why they built tombs and mummified bodies. Religion was significant because it influenced laws, government, and culture in Egypt.

Bronze Age Crisis/Collapse

Around 1200 BCE, many civilizations collapsed due to invasions, natural disasters, and internal problems. Cities were destroyed, trade networks ended, and people entered a “dark age.” This event is significant because it shows how fragile civilizations were and how interconnected the ancient world had become.

 Intimidation in the Neo-Assyrian Empire

The Neo-Assyrian Empire used intimidation and terror to control people. They had strong armies and were known for brutal tactics like displaying corpses or destroying cities. This was significant because it shows how fear was used as a tool of power to rule a vast empire.

 Deportation in the Neo-Assyrian Empire

The Assyrians moved conquered people from their homelands to new areas of the empire. This broke resistance and helped spread Assyrian culture. Deportation was important because it kept control over diverse groups and helped maintain the empire’s power.

 Achaemenid Multiculturalism

The Achaemenid Persian Empire allowed different cultures, languages, and religions to exist under their rule. They used tolerance and local leaders to keep peace. This was significant because it showed a new way of ruling that focused on diversity and cooperation instead of just fear.

 Royal Road

The Royal Road was a highway built in the Persian Empire to connect cities for trade, travel, and communication. It made it possible for messengers to cross the empire quickly. The road was significant because it helped unify the empire and strengthen control.

Qanats and Dromedaries

Qanats were underground irrigation systems in Persia that brought water to dry areas. Dromedaries (one-humped camels) were used for transport in deserts. These were important because they allowed farming and trade to flourish in harsh environments.

Persepolis

Persepolis was the grand capital of the Persian Empire built by Darius I. It had huge palaces, audience halls, and carvings showing tribute from many nations. It was significant because it symbolized the power, wealth, and multicultural unity of the Persian Empire.

 Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism was the main religion of Persia, founded by the prophet Zoroaster. It taught a struggle between good and evil and influenced later religions like Judaism and Christianity. It is important because it shaped Persian culture and left lasting religious ideas.

 Israelite Kingdoms

The Israelite Kingdoms of Israel and Judah developed in the ancient Near East. They were known for their belief in one God and the laws in the Hebrew Bible. These kingdoms are important because they laid the foundation for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Ethical Monotheism

This is the belief in one God who demands moral behavior and justice. It began with the Israelites and spread through their scriptures. Ethical monotheism is important because it shaped major world religions and changed how people thought about law, justice, and morality.

Minoans and Mycenaeans

The Minoans lived on Crete and were known for trade, art, and the palace of Knossos. The Mycenaeans lived in mainland Greece and were more warlike. They interacted and influenced each other, and both collapsed in the Bronze Age crisis. They are important because they were the foundation of later Greek culture.

 Linear A and Linear B

Linear A was the writing system of the Minoans, which has not been fully translated. Linear B was the script of the Mycenaeans and was an early form of Greek. These are significant because they show the development of writing and record-keeping in early Greece.

Phalanx

The phalanx was a Greek military formation where soldiers stood close together with shields and spears. This formation made armies stronger and harder to defeat. It was important because it gave ordinary soldiers a role in warfare and shaped Greek military success.

Spartan Oligarchy

Sparta was ruled by a small group of leaders (an oligarchy) instead of a king or democracy. Its society was focused on military training and discipline. This government is important because it shows a different path of Greek politics, contrasting with Athens.

(Rise of) Athenian Democracy

Athens developed a democracy where citizens voted on laws and leaders. This gave people more political power than in most other ancient societies. It is significant because it influenced later ideas of government and citizenship in the modern world.

 Ostracism

Ostracism was a practice in Athens where citizens could vote to exile a person for 10 years if they were seen as a threat to democracy. It was important because it shows how Athenians tried to protect their democracy from corruption or tyranny.

Persian War

The Persian War was the conflict between Greece and the Persian Empire. Major battles included Marathon, Thermopylae, and Salamis. The Greeks won, which protected their independence. This war is significant because it united the Greek city-states and shaped Greek identity.

Peloponnesian War

The Peloponnesian War was fought between Athens and Sparta (and their allies). It lasted for decades and ended with Sparta’s victory. This war was significant because it weakened all of Greece, making it easier for outsiders like Macedonia to conquer later