Unit 1 Research Methods: Vocabulary

experiment

an investigation that searches for a cause-and-effect in a relationship; IV and DV

independent variable (IV)

-creates a change
-investigated
-manipulated
-has levels AKA conditions
-affects DV

dependent variable (DV)

measured, expected to change due to IV

uncontrolled/confounding variable

can confound/confuse results, can affect DV

experimental condition

one or more of the levels of the IV in an experiment (ex. 1 chocolate bar or more and how it affects attention)

experimental design

how participants are placed in an experiment

independent measures design

an experimental design where different groups of participants are used (ex. random allocation)

demand characteristics

clues that might tell participants the aim of the experiment (unlikely in independent measures, likely in repeated measures)

random allocation

a way to reduce the effect of confounding variables such as individual differences. Participants are put into each level of the IV such that each person has an equal chance of being in any condition.

repeated measures design

an experimental design where tasks are repeated and order effects are likely

participant variables

individual differences such as age, gender intelligence, etc. which are likely to cause confusing results

order effects

consequences of repeating a study more than once as participants will grow tired and/or improve solely because they've already done it and are doing it again

practice effect

when participants' performances improves from the first time since they're repeating the same experiment again

fatigue effect

when participants' performances declines since they are starting to get bored/tired of the repetition of the experiment

randomisation

when participants are randomly chosen to take part in either side of the experiment, (order effects are avoided since they're only doing it once)

counterbalancing

when participants swap places in both sides of an experiment, a way to overcome order effects

matched pairs design

experiments with only two people with similar characteristics (ex. twins, same age, same level of intelligence)

laboratory experiment

an experiment conducted in an artificial setting (unusual environment for participants)

-limits effects

-standardized

-easier to operationalize IV/DV

-easier to control

controls

keeping possible confusing variables constant to avoid complications

standardization

ensuring the procedure for participants in a study are the exact same (basically a replication but instead for a study's materials, it's for a study's participants)

reliability

how consistent a procedure, task, or measure is

validity

how certain the researcher can be that they're testing what they're intending to test

pilot study

a test study of the main study to check if the procedure and materials are reliable;
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experiment

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an investigation that allows researchers to look for a cause-and-effect relationship; it has two parts an IV and DV

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independent variable (IV)

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factor being investigated, it can be changed or manipulated, it is responsible for changes in the DV

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pilot study

a preliminary test of the procedure to improve validity and reliability

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pilot study

a preliminary test of the procedure to improve validity and reliability

Image

replication

ensuring the procedure and materials in all experiments in a study are the exact same to verify results

operationalize

how clear variables are described in experiments so it can be accurately manipulated, measured, and replicated

placebo

a fake drug given to a patient who believes it's real, doesn't actually have an ingredient to cause a change

field experiment

an experiment conducted in an natural setting (usual environment for participants)

-natural setting

-hard to control variables

-has high ecological validity

-able to be generalised to other settings

generalise

to apply findings of a study more widely such as other settings and populations

ecological validity

how realistic an experiment is when compared to a real-world experience/environment

hypothesis (pl. hypotheses)

a testable statement, states relationship btw variables, provides details about variables, NOT AN EDUCATED GUESS

alternative hypothesis

main hypothesis

non-directional (two-tailed)

does not predict direction of result, states there will be a difference btw IV and DV since there's TWO ways for the experiment to go

directional (one-tailed)

predicts direction of result, states which condition is best since there's only ONE way for the experiment to go

null hypothesis

states there's no difference btw variables and any difference is to chance

informed consent

when a participant knows enough about a study to decide if they agree to participate

right to withdraw

participants are allowed to remove themselves and their data from a study at any time

protection from harm

participants shouldn't be exposed to more physical and psychological risk than encountered in their everyday life

deception

participants shouldn't be purposely lied to about the aim and/or procedure of the study unless it's used to lower stress

privacy

avoiding observing participants in situations/places they wouldn't expect to be seen as a way to keep from invading their emotions and physical space

confidentiality

keeping participants results' and private info safe and unreleased to anyone outside the study

self-report

research method where researchers directly ask participants info about themselves (ex. questionnaire or interview)

questionnaire

self-report research method that asks questions through paper and pencil or online

closed questions

questions where participants are given limited options

open questions

questions where participants can give detailed answers in their own words

inter-rater reliability

the extent to which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses in a self-report will produce the same results from the same raw data

generalisability

how widely findings apply to other settings and populations

social desirability bias

when a participant responds differently to appear socially acceptable

filler questions

questions unrelated to the study to prevent participants from finding out the aim

interview

research method where verbal questions are asked directly in person or over telephone

structured interview

type of interview where the questions asked are already planned

unstructured interview

in which most questions depend on the respondent’s answers; a list of topics may be given to the interviewer; flexible format but it may be hard to compare data collected from different participants/researchers

semi-structured interview

type of interview where closed and open questions are asked (synonym: compromise)

subjectivity

when a researcher's beliefs and ideas makes them biased towards the aim of the study

objectivity

when a researcher is unbiased towards the aim of the study, regardless of their beliefs and ideas

case study

research method where an individual or group is being studied in detail

triangulation

when different techniques are used for the same study to increase validity in a case study

naturalistic observation

an observation conducted in the participants normal environment without interference from the observers

controlled observation

an observation conducted in a normal or artificial environment that the observer has manipulated

unstructured observation

a study in which the observer records the whole range of possible behaviors

structured observation

a study in which the observer records only a limited range of behaviors

behavioural categories

observable activities recorded in an observation that are operationalized

inter-observer reliability

the consistency between two researchers recording the same data

participant observer

a researcher who acts as a participant in the observation

non-participant observer

a researcher who observes from outside the observation

overt observer

the role of the observer is obvious to the participants (ex. holding a clipboard)

covert observer

the role of the observer is not obvious to the participants (hidden or disguised)

co-variables

the two measured variables in a correlation

correlation

research method that searches for a link between the two measured variables (cannot assume that they're causal)

causal relationship

a link between two variables where a change in one is related to a change in the other

positive correlation

a relationship between two variables that both go in the same direction (ex. both go up or both go down)

negative correlation

a relationship between two variables that go in different directions (ex. one goes up and one goes down)

longitudinal study

a research method that follows at the same group of participants over time looking at changes in variables

cross-sectional study

a study that occurs at one point in time that compares participants with different ages or stages

cohort

a group of participants who share the same age or stage

longitudinal design

an experimental design that tests the same participants on 2+ occasions over time

situational variable

a confounding variable caused by uncontrolled factors of the environment

intelligence quotient (IQ)

a measure of general reasoning and problem solving ability

sample attrition

the loss of participants from a sample over time (ex. due to losing contact, boredom, unavailability, death)

aim

the purpose of the study being conducted

standardised instructions

the same written or verbal instructions given to all participants at the beginning or during a study

population

group of people with similar characteristics from which a sample is drawn from

sample

group of people selected to represent the population in a study

sampling technique

a method used to select a sample of participants from a population

opportunity sample

participants that are chosen due to availability

volunteer (self-selected) sample

participants that personally choose to participate in a study

random sample

selecting participants from a population in a randomly unbiased way

quantitative data

numerical results regarding the quantity of a psychological measure

qualitative data

descriptive results regarding the quality of a psychological characteristic

measure of central tendency

a mathematical way to the typical/average score of a data set using mode, median, mean

mode

identifies the most common number in a data set

median

identifies the middle score in a data set

mean

identifies a score by adding up all values and dividing by amount of values

measure of spread

a mathematical way to describe the variation within a data set

range

the difference between the biggest and smallest value (plus one) within a data set

standard deviation

a calculation of the average difference between each score in the data set and the mean

bar chart

a graph used for data in discrete categories and total/average scores

histogram

a graph used to illustrate continuous data

scatter graph

a way to display data from a correlational study

ethical issues

problems in research that are or have the potential to be negatively concerning about the welfare of participants and/or wider society

ethical guidelines

advice that guide psychologists to consider the welfare of participants and/or wider society