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(Introducing I-O)
Scientist-practitioner model
Scientists theory and research
Understand individual, group and organizational behavior through research
Focus on generating knowledge
Practice
Apply I/O Psychology to organizations, externally or internally
Consumer of and applier of knowledge
(Introducing I-O)
Industrial Psychology
Recruitment, selection, training, performance, appraisal, promotion, transfer, termination
(Introducing I-O)
Organizational Psychology
Attitudes, fairness, motivation, stress, leadership, teams, broader aspects of organizational and work design
(Introducing I-O)
Army Alpha
intelligence tests for the US army
written test designed for literate recruits
multiple choice
large group testing
(Introducing I-O)
Army Beta
written test designed for recruits who couldn’t read or speak English
non-verbal test
pictures
decided where you should be places in the military
(Introducing I-O)
Why were these testing methods considered innovative during their time?
given to large numbers of recruits efficiently
the test could be given to individuals with different language skills and literacy levels
(Introducing I-O)
Scientific Management
A movement based on principles developed by Frederick W. Taylor,(Need to know his name) who suggested that there was one best and most efficient way to perform various jobs; also known as “Taylorism.”
(Introducing I-O)
Time and motion studies
Frank & Lillian Gilbreth
Studies that broke every action into its constituent parts, times those movements with a stopwatch, and developed more efficient movements to increase productivity.
(Introducing I-O)
Hawthorne Studies
1930’s set of studies by Harvard researchers at Western Electric Company
Interested in the relationship between lighting with employee morale and efficiency
Hawthorne Effect: the alteration of behavior by subjects due to awareness of being observed
(Introducing I-O)
Human Relations Movement
conceptual shift toward increased focus on employee emotion and motivation
(Employee Selection)
Employee Selection Goal
Identify the individuals amongst a pool of applicant who would be most likely to succeed in a given job role
(Employee Selection)
Recruitment
Raise awareness of opening to reach applicants
Company websites, job boards, social networking (e.g. LinkedIn), targeted ad placement, employee referrals.
Generate organizational attention
(Employee Selection)
Recruitment
organizational attention
applicants’ overall evaluation of the appeal of working at that organization in that role. (High pay, benefits) (generate organizational attraction)
(Employee Selection)
Job analysis
systematic study of a job or role to determine the activities, responsibilities, and attributes needed to perform required tasks successfully.(resource that already exist or your own)
Informs what qualities and characteristics employers should look for amongst their pool of applicants (i.e., KSAO’s)
(Employee Selection)
What are KSAO’S?
knowledge
skill
ability
“other” characteristics
(Employee Selection)
KASO’s
Knowledge
Collection of discrete, related facts and information about a particular domain
(Employee Selection)
KASO’s
Skill
Practiced act
Specific and clearly related to the job
(Employee Selection)
KASO’s
Ability
Stable capacity to engage in a specific behavior
General
Stable capacity to engage in the behavior
(Employee Selection)
KASO’s
“Other” characteristics
Personality, interests, etc.
(Employee Selection)
Applicant assessment methods
Common Assessment Methods
Interviews (structured vs. unstructured)
Cognitive ability tests (generally, strongest predictor of job performance)
Personality tests (can do vs. will do)
Work samples (example: a little sample on what it would look like for you to perform in this specific task/job)
(Employee Selection)
Structure interviews
Better (more predictive of actual performance because you have clear criteria and less bias)
Very clear set of questions in a particular order
Clear standard benchmarks on what was a good answer and what was a bad answer
(Employee Selection)
Unstructured interviews
Not a systematic set of questions you're asking to each applicant
Not very applicant may get asked the same question
Questions may not be linked to the job
Interviews like to have some level of autonomy
(Employee Selection)
How might an employer evaluate whether their selection processes were effective?
Correlate employee performance with pre-hire scores; were you able to accurately predict who would be successful? If not, what should you do differently in future hiring processes?
(Employee Selection)
Artificial intelligence
many large corporations use AI to shift through applications
Resume Screening
Video Interview scoring
Layoff Recommendations
(Employee Selection)
Artificial intelligence and employees
about two-thrids of Americans say they would not want to apply for a job if AI were used to help make hiring decisions
(Oddball Interview Questions Reading)
What was the purpose of this article?
they wanted to see if companies asked oddball interview questions would that lead to the employee to view the company as more innovative and have more style leading to organizational attraction
(Oddball Interview Questions Reading)
Person-organization fit
alignment and compatibility in characteristics between an individual and their environment (in this case, the organization)
Fit with organization associated with greater job satisfaction, greater organizational commitment, and lower turnover intentions
(Oddball Interview Questions Reading)
Methods
Time 1: Big Five Personality Survey
Time 2: Experiment exposing participants to one of four questions; perceptions of organizational personality & organizational attraction assessed after
“Create an outfit that describes yourself.”
”Which one of the seven dwarves would you be?”
“What was the last costume you wore?”
“Tell me something about yourself.”
(Oddball Interview Questions Reading)
study results
Asking “oddball” interview questions was associated with external perceptions of innovation and style.
…but was this associated with greater organizational attraction?
Negative indirect effect when controlling for innovation and style…why?
Not the only type of perception individuals are having when asked the oddball question, there are other opportunities for there to be negative perceptions of these questions
No differences found based on applicant personality.
(Oddball Interview Questions Reading)
Moderator Variable
variable affecting the strength and direction to the relationship between two variables
(Oddball Interview Questions Reading)
What variables were hypothesized to act as mediators/moderators within this study?
???
(Social Media and Selection reading)
What are some potential benefits and risks associated with using social media within an employee selection process?
Benefits: publicly available information, additional information about the applicant
Drawbacks: limited diversity, bias, social media os out of context for the workforce
(Social Media and Selection reading)
Disparate Treatment
intentional discrimination based on protected group membership
(Social Media and Selection reading)
Disparate Impact
inequity in group outcomes regardless of intention
Both may be illegal under the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (protection based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin).
(Social Media and Selection reading)
Recommendations organizations to consider
Develop a clear social media policy, including a process drawing upon predefined criteria derived from job analyses.
Provide all raters of social media profiles with standardized instructions and training on how to rate applicants.
Prior to collecting any ratings from social media profiles, ensure that applicants have been notified.
(Motivation)
What is motivation?
A psychological force that energizes, directs and sustains behavior
(Motivation)
Three components of motivation
Direction
Intensity
Persistence
(Motivation)
Direction
Where is the effort being directed?
Task choice
On-task vs. Off-task
(Motivation)
Intensity
How much effort is being devoted to the task?
(Motivation)
Persistence
Is effort sustained over time?
Facing rejection or failure
Tolerating stressors, obstacles
(Motivation)
What is Motivation not?
NOT a trait: stable characteristics of an individual
INSTEAD, a situationally-dependent state (not that one person is more motivated than another but they are going to be more motivated based on situation) (more motivated in one context than the other)
(Motivation)
Maslow's Need Hierarchy
5 fundamental needs human have that guides there motivation
Basic needs are the physiological needs (water, food, air to breath)
Safety (housing, security) (slightly more complex than physiological needs)
Social needs (feel apart of society and level of connectedness)
Esteem needs (self confidence, valued, recognized)
Top of the ladder Self-actualization (maximum level of fulfillment to develop the best person you can be)
They are arranged in this way because according to Maslow all your lower order needs have to be fulfilled until you more up the ladder
(Motivation)
Maslow criticisms
Lack of empirical support
Sepuntial, stage-based model particularly limiting (you must only work on one need at a time)
(Motivation)
Intrinsic Motivation
Engaging in behavior due to genuine interest and satisfaction
(Motivation)
Extrinsic Motivation
Engaging in behavior due to external rewards
(Motivation)
Self-Determination theory
Competence (individuals seek some sort of mastery in life)
Autonomy ( individuals like to feel we have free will and make choices for ourselves)
Relatedness ( Human desire to have some sort of interaction or human connections)
(Motivation)
Self determination theory Implications
Work can either fulfill or deprive fundamental needs.
Jobs that fulfill needs will be more intrinsically satisfying.
What actions can managers/organizations take to foster each of the elements identified in SDT?
Competence? (when an employee is performing well letting them know could increase competency; validation) (training opportunities; helping people become more competent)
Autonomy? (constraining work environment) (letting employees have more freedom) (letting employees give feedback)
Relatedness? (doing activities outside the work environment) (having structures social events and you're giving people the opportunity to make those connections)
(Motivation)
Goal-Setting Theory
Quite easily the single most dominant theory in the field, with over a thousand articles and reviews published on the topic=c in a little over 30 years.
(Motivation)
Goal Setting theory
What types of goals lead to optimal performance?
Specific (more specific goals are going to lead to higher levels of performance rather than general goals)
Vs. general (“try your best”) goals; less ambiguous
Challenging/difficult (encourages you to push yourself)
….Yet attainable
Vs. very easy or very difficult goals
(Motivation)
SMART goals
Specific
Measurable
Achievable
Relevant
Time-based
(Motivation)
Smart goals
Specific
Make your goal specific and narrow for more effective planning
(Motivation)
Smart goals
Measurable
Make sure your goal and progress are measurable
(Motivation)
Smart goals
Achievable
Make sure you can reasonably accomplish your goal within a certain time frame
(Motivation)
Smart goals
relevant
Your goal should align with your values and long-term objectives
(Motivation)
Smart goals
Time-based
Set a realistic but ambitious end fate to clarify tasks prioritization and increase motivation
(Motivational benefits of goal setting)
Causal Mechanisms of Goal-Setting
Diverts attention to goal-relevant activities
Helps use focus on what are the tasks that are needed to accomplish the goal
Energizes people; encourages application of greater effort
Prolongs effort over time
(Motivational benefits of goal setting)
Conditions for effectiveness
Helpful Circumstances (helpful in seeing the benefits of goal setting)
Relevant knowledge/ability is present.
Goal commitment.
Opportunities for feedback. (how is an individual is progressing)
Hindering Circumstances (circumstances that make goal achievement harder)
Tasks still involve learning.
Situational constraints (e.g., resources, obstacles).
(Motivational benefits of goal setting)
Additional Takeaways
Goal-setting is effective, regardless of job complexity
Participative vs. assigned goals
Some evidence that participative goals may be more challenging than assigned goals, leading to higher performance
Participative goals may lead to greater goal commitment
Overall, goal difficulty and commitment are primary drivers of goal-setting effectiveness
(Motivational benefits of goal setting)
Goal conflict
circumstance in which working toward one goal interferes with the likely accomplishment of another goal.
(Motivational benefits of goal setting)
Outcome Goals
may lead to anxiety when unsure how to proceed.
Consider learning-oriented subgoals.
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Occupational health Psychology
Interdisciplinary study with emphasis on understanding the physical and mental health of workers within organizations
Psychology, public health, engineering, medicine, business, etc
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Stress
Process that links stressors and strains
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Sterrors
Source
Physical or psychological demands to which an individual responds
Acute vs. Chronic
Physical vs. psychosocial
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Strain
Outcome (consequence of experiencing a stressor) (anxiety, reduced well-being)
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Acute stressors
short-term stressors that occur suddenly and typically brief
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Chronic Stressors
Long term stressors that persist over an extended period
may not have a clear end point
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Physical Stressors
Physical stressors are external stimuli or events that exert pressure on the body or its systems.
These stressors can include exposure to extreme temperatures, noise, pollution, physical exertion, injury, illness, or pain.
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Psychosocial Stressors
Psychosocial stressors are related to social, psychological, or interpersonal factors that cause emotional strain or distress.
These stressors can arise from various sources, including work, relationships, financial difficulties, academic pressure, caregiving responsibilities, discrimination, trauma, and life transitions.
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Role Stressors
Role ambiguity
Occur when employees lack clear knowledge of what behavior is expected in their job (don't know what's expected of you)
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Role Stressors
Role conflict
Stressor that occurs when demands from different sources are incompatible (demands from different roles) (caregiving responsibilities outside their workplace)
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Role Stressors
Role overload
occurs when an individual is expected to fill too many roles at once
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Demand-Control Model (Stress)
Demands: workload or intellectual requirements of a jon
Control: Combination of autonomy in the job and discretion for using different skills
High demand & low control —--> Job stress
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Strain
Strain= outcomes of stressors
Affective (emotional exhaustion, irritability)
Cognitive (memory impairment, distractions)
Physical (fatigue, immunosuppression)
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Prevention Strategies
Primary Prevention Strategies
Assumption: Most effective approach to stress management is to remove stressors
Scope: Preventative
Target: work environment, technologies, or organizational structures
Examples: Job redesign, cognitive restructuring
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Prevention Strategies
Secondary Prevention Strategies
Assumption: when unable to remove stressors, best to focus on individuals reactions to stressors
Scope: Preventative/reactive
Traget: Indiivudal
Examples: Relaxation training, stress management training, physical fitness, nutrition
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Prevention Strategies
Tertiary Prevention Strategies
Assumption: Must target consequences of stress once it has occurred
Scope: Treatment
Target: Individual
Examples: Employee assistance programs, medical care
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Employee wellbeing
the state of individuals mental, physical and general health, as well as their experiences of satisfaction in and outside of work
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Why should organizations seek to foster well being?
Lower medical costs
Increased employee morale
Decreased absenteeism and presenteeism
Absenteeism
Presenteeism
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Why should organizations seek to foster well being?
Absenteeism
Employee unplanned workplace absences (sick days, mental health days)
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Why should organizations seek to foster well being?
Presenteeism
Lost productivity due to suboptimal employee functioning due to suboptimal employee functioning given an illness, injury, or other condition (still going to work but not as productive as you could be because you're battling various circumstances)
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
How to foster employee wellbeing?
How can an organization support its employees? Doing so requires attention to the details of policies and practices related to:
Work hours and job design (restricted hours, minimal work required during off-hours)
Organizational culture (minimize negative norms such as “no one leaves until 7pm”)
Incentives that encourage balancing work and non-work domains (take vacation or the cash pay-out is less)
(Occupational Health & Wellbeing)
Organizational Wellness programs
On- or off-site services sponsored by organizations which promote good health or identify/correct health-related problems
Example Aims: Weight loss, fitness engagement, smoking cessation
Mechanisms: Health risk assessments, on-site fitness centers/memberships, incentives for participation
Participation in such programs found to be associated with decreased absenteeism and increased job satisfaction (Parks & Steelman, 2008).
(Employee Health and well-being reading)
Purpose
“Enhance understanding of the potential benefits of flexibility for employee health and well-being”
“Determine is the association between flexibility and employee wellbeing is mediated by work-family balance”
(Employee Health and well-being reading)
Method
Surveyed employees across two years; calculated change scores in variables of interest
(Employee Health and well-being reading)
Results (H1)
(as perceived flexibility increases; less sickness absence) (As perceived flexibility increases; less work-related impairments) (as perceived flexibility increases; increased commitment)
(Employee Health and well-being reading)
Results (H2)
Not evidence to suggest is mediating the relationship between perceived flexibility and sickness absence
Work family balance is mediating the relationship between perceived flexibility and work-related impairment
Work family balance is mediating the relationship between perceived flexibility and job commitment
Weak analytical statistics
Partial support for H2 (work family balance can have a mediation in work-related impairments and job commitment but not sickness absence)
(Employee Health and well-being reading)
Flexibility
Schedule flexibility
focus on temporal components
Flextime: ability to determine when work will start and stop around organizationally established “core hours”
Compressed workweeks: schedule arrangements whereby workers complete work hours across fewer days
Part-time work: employees working traditionally less than 30 hours/week
(Employee Health and well-being reading)
Flexibility
Location flexibility
focus on physical location components of work arrangements
Telework/Remote work: allows employees to work from a location other than a primary work site
(Employee Health and well-being reading)
What variable was hypothesized to mediate the relationship between workplace
flexibility and study outcomes?
(Leadership)
Defining Leadership
process of influence through which members are persuaded to exert effort on behalf of communal interests, often at the expense of more selfish pursuits
(Leadership)
Traditional Theories of Leadership
Trait Perspective
Properties of traits
Relatively stable over time & across situations.
Innate & relatively immutable
Leads to the implication to you either have it or not
Limiting to the extent that we only focus on the unchanging characteristics of yourself
What aspects of yourself is going to be related to you becoming a leader
(Leadership)
Traditional Theories of Leadership
Behavioral Perspective
Effective leadership is…
A certain pattern of behavior that motivates others toward a common goal
(Leadership)
Traditional Theories of Leadership
Behavioral Perspective (Ohio Study)
dentified two primary groups of behaviors in which leaders engage.
High or low in these two primary groups
Consideration: behavior indicating mutual trust, respect, and a certain warmth and rapport between the supervisor and group. (interpersonal relationships) (building quality relationships) (weekly check-ins)
Initiating Structure: behavior in which the supervisor organizes and defines group activities and his/her relation to the group. (task focused) (getting the work done and accomplished)
(Leadership)
Traditional Theories of Leadership
Situational Models of Leadership
Traits and behaviors matter, but effectiveness depends on the situation.
Emphasizes finding the right leader for the situation, or changing leader behavior to fit given situation
Relies on what is the situation or circumstances
(Leadership)
Leadership Development
the process by which individuals expand their capacity to perform effectively as leaders
Best practices:
Most effective when begun early in one’s career.
Active learning methods, including role playing, are most effective in leadership development over and above classroom training.
Impact of training through mentorship.
(What we know about Leadership reading)
Primary Arguments
Leadership matters and is important for organizational outcomes.
Most employees who quit say their boss is the primary reason!
Joyce et al. (2003): CEOs account for 14% of the variance in a company’s financial performance
Harter et al. (2002): Job satisfaction is mostly satisfaction with your supervisor (and it predicts group performance).
(What we know about Leadership reading)
Primary Arguments
Leadership involves the successful influence of individuals and groups toward coordinated goal attainment.
Relevant to understanding distinctions between:
Identity vs. Reputation
“Getting along” vs. “Getting ahead”
Leader emergence(seen as leaders) vs. Leader effectiveness(effective leaders)
(What we know about Leadership reading)
Primary Arguments
Personality is related to leadership effectiveness
Which traditional leadership perspective does this sound most like?
Which personality variables correlate positively with both leadership emergence and leadership effectiveness?
Openness to experience
Consciousness
Neuroticism
Which one does not correlate?
Agreeableness
(What we know about Leadership reading)
Which personality variables correlate positively with both leadership emergence and leadership effectiveness?
Openness to experience
Consciousness
Neuroticism
(What we know about Leadership reading)
Which one does not correlate?
agreeableness
Note
Flashcard