crim 101

Serial murder

kills 3 or more people over a longer period of time

mass murder

kills 3 or more people at one time

in what part of Canada are crimes the highest

the west (specifically british columbia) (this may be because of the weather being nicer?)

level one sexual assault

least serious, involves unwanted touching and or fondling.

level 2 sexual assault

Level two involves the use of weapons or some type of bodily harm (e.g., penetration).

level 3 sexual assault

Level three is the most serious and involves long-term physical injuries, such as maiming, wounding, or disfigurement.

Assault level 1 (simple assault)

Level one (sometimes called “simple assault”) is the least serious and involves punching, pushing, shoving, or threats by act or gesture; there is no bodily harm required.

assault level 2

Level two (sometimes called “assault with a weapon” or “assault causing bodily harm”) requires that the offender either use a weapon or cause some type of harm (e.g., a black eye from a punch).

assault level 3 (aggravated assault)

Level three (sometimes called “aggravated assault”) is the most serious and occurs when the offender seriously wounds, maims, or disfigures the victim.

What is robbery

Robbery refers to when an offender uses force or violence (or threats) during the commission of a theft.

First degree murder

First degree murder is planned and deliberate

2nd degree murder

Second-degree murder may be intentional, but it lacks the element of pre-planning and may occur in the heat of the moment.

manslaughter

Manslaughter is non-intentional homicide resulting from intoxication, recklessness, or negligence (e.g., two people in a bar get in a fight and one kills the other by accident).

list of violent crimes

manslaughter, 1st and 2nd degree murder, robbery, 1st 2nd and 3rd degree assault and sexual assault.

list of non violent crimes

breaking and entering, theft, identity theft,

breaking and entering

Breaking and entering (formerly referred to as burglary) involves entering someone else’s property with the intention of committing an indictable offence (e.g., theft or destruction of property).

theft

There are two levels of theft identified by the Criminal Code of Canada. There is minor theft, which includes theft of property up to $5,000, and major theft, which occurs when an offender steals over $5,000 in property. Finally, there is a special category of theft for motor vehicles.

identity theft and identity fraud

Identity fraud occurs when an offender takes a person’s personal information (e.g., credit card information) and uses it to make purchases in that person’s name or evade law enforcement through use of their identity. Identity theft occurs when a person steals another person’s identity with the intention of committing an indictable offence that includes fraud or falsehood.

crimes of morality and public order

prostitution, drug use

prostitution

The history of prostitution laws in Canada and their enforcement is confusing to say the least. For many years, the act of exchanging sex for money was technically legal in Canada, but it was illegal to communicate about this intention. Then, in 2014, The Protection of Communities and Exploited Persons Act officially made it illegal to buy sexual services; most public aspects of prostitution (e.g., brothels, communicating about transactions in public) remain illegal under the Act. However, independent sex workers can communicate privately with a client through phone, email, text, or social media without violating any laws.

organized crime

The Criminal Code of Canada defines organized crime as a group of three or more people whose purpose is the commission of one or more serious offences that would “likely result in the direct or indirect receipt of a material benefit, including a financial benefit, by the group” (Canadian Criminal Code, 1985).

hate crime, extremism, and terrorism

Hate crimes are not easily classified as violent or non-violent because, in some cases, hate crimes are statements, while in other cases judges may decide that hateful statements that precede physically violent incidents are in fact aggravating factors, thus increasing the severity of the statements in the eyes of the criminal justice system

market model

Focused entirely upon what the populous wants to hear. What sells well.

Public Sphere/ Social Responsibility Model

While the market model suggests the media give the public what it wants, the related social responsibility model argues that the media should give the public what it needs.

Propaganda model

The propaganda model (also called the manipulative model) suggests that media content is determined by those who own the media.

Organizational model

The organizational model is more pragmatic in pointing out that the constant need for news material and the pressure of deadlines in the news cycle lead to certain media practices that shape news content.

Cultural studies perspective

The cultural studies perspective (see 12 Cultural Criminology) views media production as a cultural practice imbued with meaning. Theorists from this perspective are particularly focused on the work of representation that takes place within the sphere of media and how this meaning can be deconstructed and resisted

Framing

Think of a picture in a frame. The frame sets the limits of what you can see, and you do not necessarily know the context outside of what appears in the image within the frame. You do not have access to the broader background.

Crime, Criminal Offenders, and Deviant “Others”

Following the idea that news stories are selected based on the newsworthiness criteria stated above (see Figure 1), a clear tendency emerges with respect to crime news: the rarest crimes receive the most coverage, while the most common crimes rarely receive coverage. As such, violent crimes, and especially murders or violent crimes committed by women, are vastly overrepresented in crime coverage as well as in entertainment media, whereas the much more prevalent property crimes are underrepresented.

home invasion

breaking into a home with other people in it.

breaking and entering

breaking into a house without people in it.

actus reus

guilty act

mens rea

guilty mind

mitigating factors

makes sentence shorter

aggravating factor

makes sentence longer

summary offense

max two years plus a day

indictable offense

life time sentence

provincial correctional centers

2 years plus a day

federal correctional fascility

2 years and up

requirements for being convicted

requires both act and intention

conflict perspective

Law and societies response to crime as seen as the creation of a ruling elite or class, and may reflect the interest of the dominant group. Crime as a social construct. Law as a historical and cultural product. Constructed by those in power to serve their own interests. This is designed historically and culturally.

Consensus perspectiv

law and a society’s response to crime are seen as rooted i societal agreement, where most people consider the act morally wrong

Typologies

ways of classifying crimes. Some of the categories are violent crime, property crime, crimes of morality, organized crime, corporate crime, hate crime (terrorism), white collar crime.

violent crime

homicide, sexual assault, assault, and robbery

property crime

breaking and entering, theft, identity fraud, and identity theft

crimes of morality/public order

drug use and prostitution

Organised crime

serious crimes committed by groups of at least three people with the underlying purpose of reaping material or financial benifits.

diversion

diverting people away from the path of formal processing

white collar crime

crimes committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation fir their own benifit.

corporate crime

crimes committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of their occupation for the benefit of their business or corporation.

Net worthy

Celebrities, ongoing events, big titles and specific people (children, old people, women), ideal victims, negative stories, violence, drugs, easily understood, a graphic image, geographically connected to the audience. 

Crime Severity Index (CSI)

Creates a rating scale based on punishment lengths (the longer the punishment the more severe the crime) thus it assigns a weight to each crime. It focuses on weightier crimes and not lots of miny crimes.

Overt racism

(direct, straightforward, individual)

Overt racism can be understood as the kind of racism individuals experience as direct interpersonal experiences. It is a kind of racial bias encounter experienced subjectively by individuals. For example, if someone is overtly racist towards you, it has immediate emotional and subjective effects.

What is Institutional Racism?

(Simply following a system of laws)

Institutional racism can be understood as “racism without racists”. An institution may have racist policies or practices that do not necessarily require racist beliefs on behalf of the workers tasked with enacting them.

What is Systemic Racism?

(racism built into the society and entrenched so deeply no one can notice it)

Systemic racism is different from the other two forms of racism. It is not a form of racism experienced as an interaction between two individuals, and it may not be an institutional prohibition. Rather, it is bias or difference experienced as an effect of social structures. It may not even be immediately recognised as racism. It can also be understood as how race intersects with economic achievement and labour market disparity between those who are raced and those who are not raced (i.e., White).

how to calculate crime rate

number of police reported crimes x 100,000 and then divided by the population.

infanticide

a mother who murders her child within a year of giving birth to them.

what is strain theory

strain theory is anomie by Merton. anomie is a condition whereby society exerts pressure on the individual to achieve culturally defined goals but does not provide the institutional means to achieve them or devalues the institutional rules in favour of achieving the goals

what are Mertons 5 adaptations or modes of adjustment

These adaptations include conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion

What is Mertons idea of ritualism

Ritualism, on the other hand, is a condition in which the rules are followed at the expense of goals, where there “develops a tradition-bound, sacred society characterized by neophobia” (Merton, 1938, p. 673). Retreatism involves rejecting both the means and the goals, a condition that characterises serious drug addiction and living on the streets (Merton, 1938), while rebellion overturns the goals and means society has to offer, creating new goals and institutional regulations.

What is maximisation

In response,  Murphy and Robinson (2008) propose an additional mode of adaptation to anomie and strain—maximisation—to describe those who combine both legitimate and illegitimate means in their pursuit of wealth and privilege.

What is Albert Cohens theory of delinquency as a subculture

It is a complementary theory to strain theory that helps explain crimes that are “non-utilitarian, malicious and negativistic”—that is to say, crime that does not have any rational goal but is done simply for “the hell of it”

What does Hirschi’s social control theory say

That people don’t commit crimes because our behavior is controlled and regulated by our social bonds.

what did Hirschi argue the four types of bonds in social control theory are?

A person’s behaviour is controlled by four types of bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief.

What is Hirschi’s social control theories idea of attachment

Attachment refers to the emotional ties a person has with other people, particularly with parents. This bond is associated with how much time children spend with parents, how closely they identify with them, and whether they feel as though their parents care for their wellbeing.

What is Hirschi’s social control theories idea of Commitment

Commitment is the time and energy a person spends in the pursuit of goals, such as getting an education or building a business. If a person engages in reckless and anti-social activity, they may place these projects in jeopardy.

What is Hirschi’s social control theories idea of Involvement

Involvement is the degree to which a person is active in conventional activities. For example, if someone is busy at school and is involved with sports, they will have much less time to plan and commit delinquent acts.

What is Hirschi’s social control theories idea of Belief

Belief refers to the acceptance of a common value system shared by people in a given society. This is not the same as religious beliefs, though religion may play a role. Rather, it is the belief in the validity of the law and norms of their society.

Who created the idea of labelling theory

Howard Becker

what is labeling theory

In an earlier formulation of labelling theory, Frank Tannenbaum (1938) refers to the process wherein a stigmatising label may lead a person to start seeing themselves as a criminal.

What is the main idea of the classical school of criminology

Classical school of criminology (people are hedonists, they will always do whatever makes them feel best. Pain vs pleasure if pay off is better then they ALWAYS will.)

What is deterrence theory in the classical school of Crim

Classical school of criminology says that the deterrence theory needs to have swift certain and proportionate punishment.

What did RV martin do

he made a time limit for court systems and crimes, meaning that people can just be let free because there isnt enough time to focus on the crimes and people.

What are the requirements for deterrence to work

be thinking and waying negative, understand the punishments, and have a reasonable chance of getting caught.

why deterrence doesn’t work

optimistic bias, young, substance use, expressive crime (reactive crime of passion) frustration, fear, abuse, impulsivity, necessity.

what percent of people in prison claim to have substance abuse

40%

Social disorganization theory (chicago school) zones

Central business district, transitional zone (deteriorated housing, factories, abandoned buildings), Working class zone (single family tenements), Residential zone (single family homes, yards/garages), Commuter zone (suburbs).

In what zone is crime concentrated in social disorganization theory

In zone 2 or the transitional zone as the people are trying to get out of this place.

What are the criticisms of social disorganization theory

The concentric zone model has been shown not to apply to all cities, these neighborhoods may in fact be well organized and include social networks, crime is not limited to the powerhouse and the disenfranchised, juvenile delinquency is not restricted to the inner city, creates an us versus them dynamic.

Criticisms of strain theory

Does not explain why educated and financially successful individuals engage in crime. it fails to explain why so few women engage in crime.

What is YCJA

Youth criminal justice act

Learning theories

All behaviors including criminal behaviors are learned, learned through social interactions and associations, social environment shapes experience and reinforces patterns of behavior.

differential association theory

made by edwin sutherland. Criminal behaviour is learned. This entails learning how to commit crimes and the mindset of committing crimes (free from guilt) from the social environment and beliefs.

Carl Jungs Myers Brigg personality type indicator

The Myers-Brigg personality type indicator, rooted in the work of Carl Jung, divides people along four continuums: introversion or extraversion (E/I), sensing or intuition (S/N), thinking or feeling (T/F), and judging or perceiving (J/P), resulting in 16 main personality types (Myers, 1962). This theory suggests that differences in behaviour are largely due to basic differences in the ways individuals perceive and judge the world around them.

what are the different stages as outlined by Sigmund Freuds nurture charts

Stage	Age	Pleasure/ Sexual Focus	Key Developmental Tasks	Fixation results in
Oral	Birth – 1 year	Mouth (chewing, sucking)	Weaning	Obsessive eating, smoking, drinking (alcoholism)
Anal	2-3 years	Anus	Toilet training	Obsession with cleanliness; sexual anxiety
Phallic	4-5 years	Genitals (masturbation)	Identifying with gender role models (Oedipus/ Electra complexes)	Difficulty with intimate relationships
Latency	6-12 years	None	Social interaction	No fixation (stage not present in all cultures)
Genital	Puberty & later	Genitals (sexual intimacy)	Intimate relationships, productivity	Previous fixation equals low sexual interest; no previous fixation equals normal sexual motivation

What is coercion theory

Gerald Patterson (1995) developed coercion theory to describe an escalation pattern of parents and children negatively influencing each other.

What are the 4 different types of parenting styles

Authoritative	High warmth and high behavioural control, characterized by firm rules, but open communication and rational discussion about those rules, coupled with emotional support.
Authoritarian	Low warmth and high/harsh control. It is characterized by rigid rules, the expectation that those rules are followed, with no questions asked, and low support and a reliance on punishment to enforce rules.
Permissive	High warmth and low control, with few rules or expectations. Parents generally are warm and tolerant of their children’s behaviour but with few boundaries.
Rejecting-neglecting	Low on both warmth and control. The parent is uninvolved and if the neglect is severe, it becomes abusive.

What are the five traits in the five factor model to determine personality

Personality Trait	Low Scorer	High Scorer
Openness	Favours conservative values; judges in conventional terms; uncomfortable with complexities; moralistic	Values intellectual matters; rebellious, non-conforming; has an unusual thought process; introspective
Conscientiousness	Unable to deny gratification; self-indulgent; engages in daydreams	Behaves ethically; dependable, responsible; productive; has high aspiration level
Extraversion	Emotionally bland; avoids close relationships; over-control of impulses; submissive	Talkative; gregarious; socially poised; behaves assertively
Agreeableness	Critical, skeptical; behaviour is condescending; tries to push limits; expresses hostility directly	Sympathetic, considerate; warm, compassionate; likeable; behaves in a giving way
Neuroticism	Calm, relaxed; satisfied with self; clear-cut personality; prides self on objectivity	Thin-skinned; anxious; irritable; guilt-prone

The Myers-Brigg personality type indicator, rooted in the work of Carl Jung, divides people along four continuums: introversion or extraversion (E/I), sensing or intuition (S/N), thinking or feeling (T/F), and judging or perceiving (J/P), resulting in 16 main personality types (Myers, 1962).

ISTJ Quiet, serious, logical, loyal	ISFJ Quiet, friendly, responsible, conscientious	INFJ Connected, insightful, values-driven, decisive	INTJ Creative, driven, visionary, independent
ISTP Tolerant, flexible, solution-oriented, efficient	ISFP Quiet, friendly, sensitive, kind, conflict-averse	INFP Idealistic, values-driven, curious, adaptable	INTP Logical, abstract, quiet, analytical
ESTP Pragmatic, energetic, spontaneous, active	ESFP Outgoing, accepting, realistic, adaptable	ENFP Warm, imaginative, Appreciative	ENTP Quick, ingenious, resourceful, outspoken
ESTJ Practical, decisive, organized, systematic	ESFJ Warmhearted, harmonious, loyal, helpful	ENFJ Empathic, responsible, sociable, facilitative	ENTJ Frank, decisive, well-informed, leader

Erik Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory extended Freud’s theory of psychosexual development throughout the lifespan. At each stage of life, individuals face developmental challenges on the road to self-actualisation. Early stages of childhood development determine whether a child will trust or mistrust the world around them, develop autonomy or shame in their own abilities, and perceive themselves as “good” by being rewarded for their initiative or “bad” for failing to live up to the expectations of parental figures. Later stages focus on identity, intimacy, productivity, and satisfaction with life (Erikson, 1950).

	Stages	Crisis	Favourable Outcome	Unfavourable Outcome
Childhood	1st year of life	Trust vs mistrust	Faith in the environment and future events	Suspicion, fear of future events
	2nd year	Autonomy vs doubt	A sense of self-control and adequacy	Feelings of shame and self-doubt
	3 – 5 years	Initiative vs guilt	Ability to be a “self-starter,” to initiate one’s own activities	A sense of guilt and inadequacy to be on one’s own
	6 years to puberty	Industry vs inferiority	Ability to learn how things work, to understand and organize	A sense of inferiority at understanding and organizing
Transition Years	Adolescence	Identity vs confusion	Seeing oneself as a unique and integrated person	Confusion over who and what one really is
Adulthood	Early adulthood	Intimacy vs isolation	Ability to make commitments to others, to love	Inability to form affectionate relationships
	Middle age	Generativity vs self-absorption	Concern for family and society in general	Concern only for self – one’s own well-being and prosperity
	Aging years	Integrity vs despair	A sense of integrity and fulfillment; willingness to face death	Dissatisfaction with life; despair over prospect of death

Erikson’s work informs Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development (Kohlberg & Hersh, 1977). Kohlberg asked people of various ages about their views on right and wrong in moral dilemmas and found that people’s reasons for deciding right versus wrong followed a predictable path, as shown in Table 7.5.

Pre-conventional morality	Good vs bad is defined by getting rewards and avoiding punishments. If someone can avoid punishment or not get caught, then a person at this stage deems the action acceptable.
Conventional morality	Focuses on strict adherence to the concepts of right and wrong, as determined by the rules of society, and other significant people like parents and teachers.
Post-conventional morality	Right and wrong are determined by an individual’s principles of equality, justice, and respect; rules are critically evaluated against these standards.  Kohlberg posited this as the most advanced level of moral development.

What does the acronym WEIRD stand for?

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic

Reinforcement conditions through rewards/relief: positive reinforcement occurs through receiving a positive stimulus, while negative reinforcement is the removal a negative stimulus. Consistent reinforcement should result in an increase in the reinforced behaviour. Punishment is the opposite: positive punishment occurs through receiving a negative stimulus, while negative punishment involves having a positive stimulus taken away. Consistent punishment should result in a decrease in the punished behaviour (See Table 7.7 below).

	Add Stimulus	Remove Stimulus
More Likelihood behaviour will repeat	Positive Reinforcement A stimulus is added to increase a desired behaviour (e.g., a candy) – I am more likely to do this behaviour again.	Negative Reinforcement A stimulus is removed to increase a desired behaviour (e.g., my parents take away my electronic device at the dinner table so that I eat my dinner) – I am more likely to do this behaviour again.
Less	Positive Punishment A stimulus is added to decrease an undesired behaviour (e.g., spanking) – I am less likely to do this behaviour again.	Negative Punishment A stimulus is removed to decrease an undesired behaviour (e.g., losing electronic privileges) – I am less likely to do this behaviour again.

Antisocial personality disorder

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is one of a class of diagnoses that describe persistent, longstanding, maladaptive ways of thinking and feeling about oneself and others that detrimentally affect how one functions. ASPD is the personality disorder most strongly linked with violence; it is defined by a continual remorseless disregard for the rights of others, including repeated criminal acts, impulsiveness, irresponsibility, deceptiveness, and aggression. To be diagnosed with this disorder, the person must have exhibited aspects of antisocial behaviour prior to age 15, such as aggression toward people or animals, theft, or property destruction (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Only adults over the age of 18 can be diagnosed with personality disorders under DSM-5 criteria; however, personality disorders are commonly attached to youth in order to secure treatment.

Psychopathy

Although psychopathy is not recognised in the DSM-5, it is associated with, but distinct from, conceptualisations of ASPD. Psychopathy is characterised by two main factors: 1) interpersonal and emotional traits, such as manipulation, grandiosity and impaired empathy, and 2) antisocial behaviour and lifestyle traits, such as impulsive behaviour, sensation seeking and a parasitic lifestyle. Psychopathy is defined by subjective emotional and interpersonal criteria that are not part of ASPD, and because the DSM emphasises observable, objective behavioural criteria, not part of the DSM. The Psychopathy Checklist – Revised, developed by Hare (1991) is the most commonly used measure for psychopathy (Hare, 2016).

Liberal Feminism

According to Winterdyk (2020) and Simpson (1989), liberal feminism focuses on achieving gender equality in society. Liberal feminists believe that inequality and sexism permeate all aspects of the social structure, including employment, education, and the criminal justice system. To create an equal society, these discriminatory policies and practices need to be abolished. From a criminological perspective, liberal feminists argue that women require the same access as men to employment and educational opportunities (Belknap, 2015). For example, a liberal feminist would argue that to address the needs of female offenders, imprisoned women need equal access to the same programs as incarcerated men (Belknap, 2015). The problem with the liberal feminist perspective is the failure to consider how women’s needs and risk factors differ from men (Belknap, 2015).

Radical Feminism

Radical feminism views the existing social structure as patriarchal (Gerassi, 2015; Winterdyk, 2020). In this type of gendered social structure, men structure society in a way to maintain power over women (Gerassi, 2015; Winterdyk, 2020). Violence against women functions as a means to further subjugate women and maintain men’s control and power over women (Gerassi, 2015). The criminal justice system, as well, becomes a tool utilized by men to control women (Winterdyk, 2020). It is only through removing the existing patriarchal social structure that violence against women can be addressed (Winterdyk, 2020).

Marxist Feminism

Like the radical feminist perspective, Marxist feminists view society as oppressive against women. However, where the two differ is that Marxist feminists see the capitalist system as the main oppressor of women (Belknap, 2015; Gerassi, 2015). Within a classist, capitalist system, women are a group of people that are exploited (Winterdyk, 2020). Exploitation in a capitalist system results in women having unequal access to jobs, with women often only having access to low paying jobs. This unequal access has led to women being disproportionately involved in property crime and sex work (Winterdyk, 2020). Like other Marxist perspectives, it is only through the fall of capitalism and the restructuring of society that women may escape from the oppression they experience.

Socialist Feminism

Social feminists represent a combination of radical and Marxist theories (Belknap, 2015; Winterdyk, 2020). Like radical feminists, they view the existing social structure as oppressive against women. However, rather than attributing these unequal power structures to patriarchy, they are the result of a combination of patriarchy and capitalism. Addressing these unequal power structures calls for the removal of the capitalist culture and gender inequality. Socialist feminists argue these differences in power and class can account for gendered differences in offending – particularly in how men commit more violent crime than women (Winterdyk, 2020).