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Triple Entente
Britain (including Commonwealth colonies), France, USA, Russia, Belgium and Italy (after 1915)
Triple Alliance
Austria/Hungary, Germany, Italy (until 1915), (and to a lesser extent, Turkey).
Reasons for the Stalemate
1. Failure of the Schlieffen Plan
2. Establishment of Trench Systems
3. The 'Race to the Sea'
4. Technological advancements (industrialisation)
5. Communication breakdown
6. Establishment of the War of Attrition
7. Failure to implement Plan XVII (17)- The French battle plan
8. Tactical and Strategic Problems
9. 'Live and Let Live'
Failure of the Schlieffen Plan
General von Schlieffen originally devised the plan to take Paris within six weeks.
Moltke's modifications to the plan caused the German troops to bottle neck at Leige which weakened the 'hammer swing' and abandoned defensive tactics.
- The plan followed unrealistic and inflexible timetables.
- Russia mobilised faster than expected: Germany was faced with a two front war.
- The plan relied on entry through Belgium: the Belgians denied the German's entry (Battle at Leige).
- The BEF joined the war more quickly than expected and they held German advance (Battle at Mons).
Trench Systems
This was established in November 1914 due to the German retreat to the River Aisne. It was supposed to be a temporary tactic to shelter the troops from enemy fire and against the cold winter. It's establishment halted the war of movement, which caused the progression of the War to slow considerably.
Race to the Sea
This began with the attempts to bypass enemy trenches. This resulted in both sides aiming to reach the English Channel first in order to control the ports in Belgium. This lead to the zigzagging nature of the trench system.
Technological advancements
The industrialisation of the war lead to the introduction of the machine gun and different forms of gases (Phosgene, Mustard and Chlorine). These were all defensive strategies, which also halted the war of movement.
Communication breakdown
Use of messengers, single wire telephones and carrier pigeons became unreliable. There was often a 24-48 hour delay on messages. Issues arose between the French and the BEF due to translation issues. There was no way for artillery and infantry to communication so troops were often killed by 'friendly fire'. Weather conditions such as smoke, fog, ice, rain and fires eventually halted all forms of communications.
War of Attrition
The idea revolved around winning battles by eliminating the enemies entire forces- basically killing everyone.
Trench Structure
Between 4ft and 7ft deep.
Duckboards on the ground, usually laid over drainage systems.
Dug-outs were small rooms where officers/ troops could rest and keep their belongings. Some where connected to electricity.
Fire steps and elbow rests made shooting out of the trenches easier.
Parapet was the front of the trench facing no-mans land- often lined with sandbags.
Parados was the back of the trench.
Built in a zigzag formation.
Front line trench, reserve trench and support trench.
Communication trench and saps.
German trenches had wooden reinforcements and structures like floors and roves.
Trench conditions
Rations: Men received less than half the allocated 4300 calories per day; rations were often spoilt, stolen, lost or destroyed by enemy fire. The German army suffered severe malnutrition and hunger due to the Allied blockades.
Mud and Cold: Up to minus 15°C. The trenches were often flooded and the craters in no-man's-land filled up with enough water and mud to drown men in it. These conditions lead to trench foot.
Vermin: Infestations of beetles, rats, ants, flies, mosquitoes, lice and flees. The vermin caused bites, impetigo (infection of yellow pustules) and ulcers.
Disease: Trench foot, scabies, dysentery, pneumonia, typhus and many venereal diseases.
Comforts: Cigarettes, newspapers, chocolate, extra tea, razors, spare clothes, books, pens and paper and waterproof boots.
Trench operations
Four days in the Front line; Eight days in reserve; Four days in support; the remainder of the month in rest. 1/3 of men were despatched on trench maintenance; 1/3 on sentry duty and 1/3 sent to get rations. During the night, officers set up trench raids and patrols into no-mans-land to maintain morale. Many raids became formal operations involving aerial photography, maps and timetables.
Snipers worked in 'nests' in the front line trench: they had the accuracy of 1,000 yards (914m). There is no record of German snipers.
Trench warfare
Defensive in nature. It halted the war of movement. It became virtually impossible to advance on an enemy trench due to the use of machine guns. Old war styles such as cavalry became obsolete as a machine gun could take out hundreds of horses in minutes.
Trench weapons
Infantry- The Lee Enfield Rifle was standard issue for the BEF, as was the bayonet.
Machine gun- a defensive weapon, very accurate. However it was very costly and took 16 men to sustain it. They were not very mobile, and so were good from Trench warfare.
Stokes Mortar- Used for the bombardments of enemy lines.
Artillery such as the Howitzer (large gun) and barrages (concentrated bombardment of enemy lines).
Gas- The German's led the way with gas technology: Tear gas Jan 1915; Chlorine gas April 1915; Phosgene gas (French) December 1915; and Mustard gas July 1917.
Flame thrower- Invented in 1900; Nitrogen and carbon dioxide pushed lit oil twenty-five yards.
Aeroplanes- By the end of the war the BEF had 22,000 planes and bombers had been used to fly over Berlin. They were deemed most useful at making maps of enemy lines and artillery.
Beginning of the War
- British: Attitudes were of excitement; war was acceptable and nobel and would lead to glory, honour and adventure for the men. Poets like Wilfred Own contributed to morale; War was believed to be over by Christmas; Pledge of allegiance "to king and to country"; Unofficial truces on Christmas as morale lessened.
- Germans: Introduced the Military Law Proclamation July 1914 (all men between 18-40 had to serve); War was believed to be over by Christmas; They were already at war against Serbia with Austria/Hungary so this lessened excitement and morale; Total war already implemented.
Middle of the War
Appearance of opposition.
Reality of the war (death, destruction, injury, sickness, little progress with trench systems); Morale was non-existent; Battle of the Somme was a turning point for both the British and the Germans; The war had not ended by Christmas; Anti-war poets and painters such as Sassoon emerged; The public criticism of the government; Conscription and propaganda were introduced in Britain in 1916; Decreased home front interest in the war; Women used as bargaining chips for their men to go to war.
End of the War
Mutiny in both allied and axis forces; Anti-war poets and painters; Soldiers began questioning the possibility of the war ending and who they should be taking orders from; Soldiers went AWOL.
"Towards the end of the war... we wouldn't even sing "God save the King"... it should have been "God save us"." -Private J A Hopper
Germany goes through a revolution and the Weimar Republic is created (1919).
Total War
Involved the development of Government control over all aspects of life including means of production, communication and marketing of resources.
Means of production
Is the process of manufacturing an item using a labour force, factories and resources. In total war, the Government controls what the factories produce, who works where and the resources they can use.
Communication
An area in which the government exerts control during total war. A mild form of censorship- what is said and use of media.
DORA
Defence Against the Realm Act, August 1914.
Suspended civil rights; All business directed towards the war effort; No loitering, no flying kites and no whistling; clocks altered to allow more work hours.
Rationing, conscription in 1916, Income tax rose 200%, evidence of looting, increase in propaganda.
Military Law Proclamation
Germany's authoritarian style government already had conscription before the war began, however they introduced this law to conscript men between 18-40.
Hindenburg Program
Total war plan for the German economy: The stock market totally shut down from 1914-1918.
KRA
War Raw Materials Department: Controlled labour forces and key materials. POW were forced to work in agriculture to sustain the war effort.
Ersatz Goods
Because of dramatic food shortages due to the Allied blockade the Government released these products:
Bread made from corn husks and saw dust;
Coffee, tea and cocoa made from roasted acorns, yellow turnips, carrots, oats and chemicals such as coal and tar;
Meatless meat;
Wooden soled shoes;
German recruitment and conscription
- Already had conscription at the beginning of the war
- July 1914: Martial Law introduced
- Military Law Proclamation, 1914.
German censorship
- Newspapers prohibited from publishing war information (causes, battles, deaths)
- Banned discussion of peace
- People ignorant of Berlin Peace Demonstrations, 1915 and Papal Peace Note
- Imperative that the Home front morale was maintained: therefore the people had to ignorant.
German Propaganda
- Did not promote recruitment
- Severely anti-british tone
- Justify the actions of the German Government
- German soldiers shown as heroes
- Promoted nationally superior attitude
- Did not effectively reach the working class due to high-brow language use.
Germany
Home front.
Authoritarian Government didn't allow for much dissent; Socialists put their support behind the war;
British naval blockade create severe food shortages;
Opposition came from the German Social Democratic Party;
Many rallies in support of peace: Berlin Peace Demonstrations, 1915 and the Stockholm Conference, 1917.
British recruitment and conscription
- Conscription began in 1916: led to the Ireland Rebellion.
- International Women's Peace Party, the Stockholm Conference and the Papal Peace Note led to rising discontent.
- Opposition was handled softly by the Government
- Dissent was limited due to well-handled economics, industry, worker's unions, and workers.
- All new recruits were added to Lord Kitchener's Army
- Men were poorly trained before being sent to the Western Front.
- Pacifists and conscientious objectors were ridiculed by society
British censorship
Limited in that the democratic style Government could never exert total control over the people and restrict their information completely. However, no support for the German's could ever be displayed.
British propaganda
- Heavily vilified the Germans: often showing them killing babies and women.
- Some propaganda was aimed towards women: either to get them to work in factories or to persuade their men to join the war (pre-conscription).
- Vilified anyone who refused to go to war.
- Aimed at promoting home front morale.
Britain
Home front.
Promised social reform; focus on keeping up the war effort; Women became involved in work; heavy borrowing of money from the US; Heavy discontent by 1917; Opposition from the British Labour Party, Union of Democratic Control, No Conscription Fellowship, Independent Labour Party, Herald League;
Suffragette movement was empowered by the increased rights of the woman.
Women in Britain
Volunteering and Work: Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD), Women's Land Army (Women encouraged to work the land in the absence of men to sustain the war effort, Canaries: Women who worked in munitions factories often had health problems due to exposure to toxins, Train, car and truck drivers.
Military Roles: Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC, 1917), Women's Royal Airforce (WRAF), Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS)
Suffragette movement: Suspended at the beginning of the war. Feb 1918: Parliament passed the Representation of the People Act which gave women over the age of 30 the right to vote; Many women maintained the campaign for the majority of the War- they were also responsible for the White Feathers, which they left for the men who refused to go to war.
Legacy of WW1
New Era in Warfare - global war, modern technologies (mass production, weapons), total war (all of society involved), massive casualties
Revolution - Bolshevik Revolution in Russian, KDP grew in Germany
Scars of War - 16 million deaths, new injuries (shellshock), destruction of natural and built environement), demobilisation (unemployment, welfare and pensions are established), economic debt, refugees, social conflict
Future Conflict - rise of Nazi party (result of Treaty of Versailles), Jews and communists, USA (superpower, world bank)
Peacemaking - Paris Peace Conference (t.o.v, League of Nations, new countries formed e.g. czechoslovakia)
Social and cultural change - commemoration, women, 1920's, emphasis on leisure, modernism (rejection of optimism)