Chapter 1 Zoology

Zoology

The scientific study of animal life

 Explain how animal diversity originated and how animals perform the basic processes of life that permit them to inhabit diverse environments.

Morphology

The study of the size, shape, and structure of animals, plants, and microorganisms and of the relationships of their constituent parts.

 from the World More Force. It's a branch of zoology dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features.

Comparative morphology

Studies of organismal form and its variation within and among species to reveal homologies of organismal characters.

o Examines the varying shapes and sizes of organismal structures, including their developmental origins. Both macroscopic and microscopic characters are used, including details of cellular structure revealed by histology.

o Uses specimens obtained from both living organisms and fossilized remains.

Anatomy

the scientific study of the body’s structures

 Some of these structures are very small and can only be observed and analyzed with the assistance of a microscope. Other larger structures can readily be seen, manipulated, measured, and weighed.

 The study of the human structure and function

Zootomy

and when we focus on the structure and functions of animals, then we specifically call it a

Gross Anatomy

is the study of the larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification. o Also referred as macroscopic anatomy

 Microscopic anatomy

the study of structures that can be observed only with the use of a microscope or other magnification devices.

o includes cytology, the study of cells and histology, the study of tissues.

 Comparative Anatomy

the study of the structure of living and fossilized animals and the homologies that indicate evolutionarily close relationships.

Cytology

 Study of the structure and function of cells

Comparative cytology

o (Also called karyology) uses variation in the numbers, shapes, and sizes of chromosomes and their parts to obtain variable characters for constructing cladograms.

o used almost exclusively on living rather than fossilized organisms.

o It provided evidence that chromosomes of humans and apes are homologous.

Histology

Study of tissues; the microscopic study of tissue appearance, organization, and function.

 A tissue is a group of similar cells (together with associated cell products) specialized for performance of a common function. The study of tissues is called histology.

Ecology

Study of the interaction of organisms with their environment

 Modern zoology requires an ecological perspective. It is the second major unifying theme in zoology. An ecological perspective recognizes that animals can never be understood apart from other organisms and the nonliving components of their environment.

 the study of the interactions of an animal with its habitat, which includes all living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) characteristics of the area in which the animal lives.

 ecology is studied as a hierarchy of biological systems in interaction with their environments. At the base of the ecological hierarchy is an organism, such as an individual animal. To understand why animals, live where they do, ecologists must examine the varied physiological and behavioral mechanisms that animals use to survive, to grow, and to reproduce.

Behavioral ecology

study the evolutionary and environmental contexts of animal behaviors and how particular behaviors serve to maximize reproductive and evolutionary success.

Behavioral ecologists often concentrate on a particular aspect of behavior, such as mate choice, foraging, or parental investment.

Community ecology

Communities consist of populations that interact with one another through competition, predation, parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism.

o These relationships produce coevolution among populations within communities.

o Guilds of species avoid competitive exclusion by partitioning limited resources, often featuring morphological specialization.

Ecosystem

consist of communities and their abiotic environments

o Animals occupy the trophic levels of herbivorous and carnivorous consumers within ecosystems.

o Ecosystem productivity is described by measuring energy flow and material cycles within ecosystems. All energy is lost as heat, but n

Embryology

Study of the development of an animal from the fertilized egg to birth or hatching

 the branch of zoology that studies the prenatal development of the gametes, also known as sex cells, fertilization, and development of embryos, as well as the fetuses.

Physiology

The scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in which they work together to support the functions of life.

 The study of physiology certainly includes observation, both with the naked eye and with microscopes, as well as manipulations and measurements.

 A branch of biology covering the organic processes and phenomena of an organism or any of its parts or of a particular bodily process.

Genetics

Study of the mechanisms of transmission of traits from parents to offspring

 The study of how biological information is transmitted from one generation to the next.

 Animal genetics is the study of heredity and variation among animals.

Molecular genetics

The study of how the information stored in DNA codes for RNA and protein.

Epigenetics

The inheritance of environmentally induced change in a species and its overall contribution to evolutionary change is uncertain.

Population genetics

The study of the genetic events in gene pools

o The Hardy–Weinberg theorem states that if certain assumptions are met, gene frequencies of a population remain constant from generation to generation.

Paleozoology

is a branch of paleontology, biology, and/or zoology. It deals with the recovery and identification of animal fossils. These fossils are then used to help reconstruct prehistory environments as well as ancient ecosystems.

 the branch of zoology that deals with the study of fossil animals to identify the multicellular animals from the geologic perspective and to establish prehistoric environments and their ecosystem.

 It is a branch of paleontology, the study of the fossil record, provides some of the most direct evidence for evolution.

Vertebrate paleozoology

is concerned with mapping out all vertebrates' evolution as well as how they changed over time.

Quantitative paleozoology

o focused on taking a census of fossils rather than an inventory.

o The difference between the two is that an inventory would be detailed information about the fossils, and a census of fossils is more about the number of fossils from a species had been recovered.

o This information is used to help determine what species were dominant as well as the nature of their species and how effective it was at reproducing.

Zoogeography

is a subset of biogeography, the evolutionary and ecological theories that explain the spatial distributions of all living forms. Most species occupy limited geographic areas.

describe patterns of animal distribution and species diversity and seek to explain why species and species diversity are distributed as they are.

are challenged to explain numerous discontinuous or disjunct distributions: closely related species living in widely separated areas of a continent, or even the world.

Descriptive zoology

The study of animals and their habitats

Phylogeny

refers to the evolutionary relationships among species. It includes the depiction of ancestral species and the relationships of modern descendants of a common ancestor.

 evolutionary history of a group of organisms and is usually depicted using tree diagrams.

 All the studies confirm the theory that life’s history has the structure of a branching evolutionary tree.

Evolution

explains how the diversity of animals arose.

 Charles Darwin published convincing evidence of evolution in 1859 and proposed a mechanism that could explain evolutionary change. Since that time, biologists have become convinced that evolution occurs.

 The mechanism proposed by Darwin has been confirmed and now serves as the nucleus of our broader understanding of evolutionary change.

 Evolutionary principles help us understand the origin and evolution of early lifeforms.  Evidence of - also comes from observing the developmental patterns of organisms.

 the origin and differentiation of animals

Organic evolution

change in the genetic makeup of populations of organisms over time.

Convergent evolution

The evolution of superficially similar structures in unrelated organisms

Ontogeny

the development of an organism through its entire life, from its origin as a fertilized egg or bud throughout adulthood to death.

 Early developmental and embryological features contribute greatly to our knowledge of homology and common descent.

 Comparative studies of - show how evolutionary changes in developmental timing generate new body forms and structures.

also can be shortened during evolution, however. Terminal stages of the ancestor’s ontogeny can be deleted, causing adults of descendants to resemble pre-adult stages of their ancestors.

Ethology

emphasizes the importance of ultimate factors influencing behavior.

 is the study of behavior, both innate and learned, of animals in their natural habitats.

 The central theme of - is that behavioral traits can be identified and measured, homologies determined, and their evolutionary histories investigated to provide causal explanations.

Sociobiology

o the ethological study of social behavior, was formalized with the 1975 publication of E. O. Wilson’s -: The New Synthesis.

o Wilson describes social behavior as reciprocal communication of a cooperative nature (transcending mere sexual activity) that permits a group of organisms of the same species to become organized in a cooperative manner.

Taxonomy

The studies result in the description of new species and the organization of animals into groups based on degree of evolutionary relatedness.

The work of - involves describing inherited characteristics that animals share, ranking characteristics based on their order of appearance in the evolution of animals and using this information to describe phylogenetic relationships among animals.

 Traditional classification systems reflect a - hierarchy in which organisms are grouped into ever broadening categories based on shared characteristics and evolutionary relationships.

 - classify organisms according to their similarities and differences; The fundamental unit of classification is the species.

 - often work with morphological characteristics, and the reproductive criterion must be assumed based on morphological and ecological information.

Classical taxonomy

relied on characteristic behaviors, songs, anatomical differences, and ecological niches to distinguish the bird orders.

Animal genetics

is the study of heredity and variation among animals.

Pathology

Use of fluid to diagnose

Zoometry

deals with the measurements, the length or size of animal parts

Nematology

a sub-discipline of zoology that studies roundworms

Bionics

the study of mechanical systems that function like living organisms or parts of living organisms. It is the concept of applying biological methods and systems found in nature to the study or design of engineering systems and modern technology.

Animals

multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the biological kingdom Animalia

2\.16 M

Number of species described as of 2022

1\.05 M insects, 85,000 mollusks, 65,000 vertebrates, 7.77 M total species

How many insects, mollusks, and vertebrates, and estimated number of species in total

8\.5 micrometers (0.00033 in) to 33.6 meters (110 ft)

Range of animal length

Heterotrophic

feeding on organic material and digesting it internally

aerobically; motile (sessile is the opposite)

Animals respire (-); able to move

Blastula

Animals are unique in having a unique ball of cells of the early embryo, developing into a hollow ball

Protozoology

a branch of zoology that deals with the study of protozoa which are unicellular organisms such as amoeba.

Entomology; 30 million

Insects (how many insect species?)

Coleopterology, dipterology, hemipterology, isopterology, myrmecology, trichopterology, vespology, orthopterology, lepidopterology.

Study of Beetles, flies, true bugs, termites, ants, caddisflies, wasp, grasshoppers and crickets, butterflies and moths

Forensic entomology

uses the succession of insects in a dead body to estimate the age of a corpse and thus provides valuable information to investigators about time of death.

Conchology, malacology, herpetology, batrachology, ophiology, ichthyology, ornithology, mammalogy, carcinology, helminthology, melittology (apiology), arachnology, cetology, anthrozoology, archaeozoology, primatology

mollusk shells, mollusks, amphibians and reptiles, amphibians alone, snakes, fishes, birds, mammals, crustaceans, parasitic worms, bees, arachnids, marine mammals, human-animal interaction, dead animals, primates

Cichlidae; 2,000-3,000 (Eretmodus, Tanganicodus, Perissodus)

One large bony fish; how many species

Hippocrates; Hippocratic Corpus; Hippocratic Oath; carcinoma; “seed material”

(Blank) a Greek physician who lived from 460 BC to 370 BC, is regarded as the "father of Western medicine". Some of the oldest surviving medical publications, the (blank), is said to have been written by (-) and his heirs. The (Blank), which new doctors take to affirm their commitment to diagnosing and treating patients without harm, is frequently attributed to (-).

 The father of medicine

 Proposed the idea that imbalances in the four "humors" can lead to disease.

 Advocated for the dissection of animals to gain knowledge about human anatomy.

 Described numerous diseases and introduced terms such as "acute," "chronic," and "relapse."

 His code of ethics, known as the (-), continues to be a guiding principle in medical practice.

 Recognized the role of the brain in sensation and thought

Understood the potential danger of pus in wounds.

 Used the term (-) to describe tumors, which eventually led to the modern term "cancer."

 Suggested the existence of (-) passed from parents, which laid the foundation for understanding the material basis of inheritance.

Aristotle

He was known for his articulation of the spontaneous generation theory.

 Extensively studied marine species and classified various groups, including crustaceans, mollusks, echinoderms, and fish.  Developed the concept of the scala naturae, which organized organisms based on their position on a "ladder of life."

 In his book "History of Animals," he proposed that embryos arise from a type of contagion.

 Articulated the theory of spontaneous generation.

 Proposed the theory of epigenesis.

 Championed the vitalism theory.

 Categorized living things into plants and animals and classified approximately 500 animal species based on anatomical features.

 Studied species' migration, distribution, and behavior, which provided early insights into the concept of the ecological niche

 He was known as the father of biology, and zoology. He has introduced several concepts that includes systematically observing and studying a wide range of animals, noting the similarities, and trying to connect like with like. He studied animals from all around Greece, and it is likely that he received exotic specimens from his sponsor and ex-pupil, Alexander the Great. He has introduced the first system of classification, the sexual and asexual type of reproduction, the forms, and functions of animals.

Galen

He was known for being a medical author and has been influenced by philosophical debates on his time.

 He was known for dissecting animals to develop a deep understanding of the anatomy and physiology.

 championed the theory that the body had four basic humors

 achieved some progress in understanding anatomy and physiology by conducting dissections and vivisections of animals  concluded from animal dissections that food is “assimilated” in the stomach and is converted into blood in the liver  proposed Galenic circulation

 suggested that life is created through pneuma, a subtle material in the air

 taught that the brain controls mental faculties

 he works on anatomical and medical studies, he distinguished 7 pairs of cranial nerves, he described the valves of the heart, and observe the structural difference between arteries and veins. One of his most important demonstrations was that the arteries carry blood, not air that was thought for 400 years. He has contributed much of the dissection of animals with pictures, the blood movement in the body of the animals, and some mental disorders. During the renaissance, this ancient work was further developed in the Middle Ages by the Muslim physicians and scholars such as Albertus magnus

George Cuvier

He published his extensive studies of vertebrate fossils on 1812.  He was a French scientist that developed the term paleontology.  He had an academic argument with Lamarck because he denied that evolution occurs. he proposed that sudden catastrophic events in the past caused species to disappear from an area while Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve, but the underlying mechanisms he proposed are not supported by evidence.  introduced the idea that Earth’s past held many species of animal now extinct  published the Discours Préliminaire (Preliminary Discourse), an introduction to his essays on fossil quadrupeds (animals with four legs), in which he argued that many more species lived on Earth in the past and that every rock bed contains fossils from a different time in Earth’s past

Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck

He published his hypothesis of evolution on 1809.

 French biologist (1744–1829). Alas, - is primarily remembered today not for his visionary recognition that evolutionary change explains patterns in fossils and how organisms are well suited for their environments, but for the incorrect mechanism he proposed.

 By comparing living species with fossil forms, Lamarck had found what appeared to be several lines of descent, each a chronological series of older to younger fossils leading to a living species. He explained his findings using two principles that were widely accepted at the time. The first was use and disuse, the idea that parts of the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger, while those that are not used deteriorate. Among many examples, he cited a giraffe stretching its neck to reach leaves on high branches. The second principle, inheritance of acquired characteristics, stated that an organism could pass these modifications to its offspring. Lamarck reasoned that the long, muscular neck of the living giraffe had evolved over many generations as giraffes stretched their necks ever higher.

 published his book Système des Animaux Sans Vertèbres (System of Invertebrate Animals), in which he coined the term invertebrate and developed a system of classification for this group of animals

Claude Bernard

He was known for his discoveries in the field of medicine including the role of pancreatic secretion, stomach, and bile in digestion. Moreover, his works became fundamental in physiology because he discovered that biochemical reactions can be reversible.

 father of modern experimental physiology

 discovered that glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen

* Homeostasis

William Harvey

He made remarkable discoveries in animals and plants including the discovery of how the heart pump blood throughout the body in a closed loop.

 published his account of the circulation of blood

 demonstrated that a fixed volume of blood circulates around the human body

 published his book Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Living Beings) commonly known as De Motu Cordis

St. Albertus Magnus

His work and contribution in logic, psychology, metaphysics, meteorology, mineralogy, and zoology made him well-known.

 studied both the physiology and psychology of animals. He recorded his findings in the 26- volume De Animalibus (On Animals). He argued that whereas some animals, such as dogs, had outstanding memories and could learn and engage in simple forms of reasoning, others, such as flies, had no memory and never learned

 he was known as the father of natural science, and the patron saint of scientist.

Andreas Vesalius

He was known for his anatomy work “De humani corporis fabrica libri septem” in which his plenty and detailed notes and drawings of human anatomy from human cadaver were compiled.

 father of modern anatomy

Carolus Linnaeus

He was a Swedish physician and botanist.

He developed the “binomial” for naming species and (-) used a nested classification 8 system, grouping similar species into increasingly inclusive categories.

 father of taxonomy

 publishes Species Plantarum (Plant Species), followed by the 10th edition of System of Nature, introducing his system of binomial nomenclature for classifying species

Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (George de Buffon)

He published 36 of his works out of the 50 volumes he projected, and his career was centered in his encyclopedia the “Histoire Naturelle” which contained everything he knows about the natural world.

 published Histoire Naturelle (Natural History), which includes his theory on variation of species

 devoted himself to the study of natural history and was an early proponent of evolution

 constructed a geological history of Earth, suggesting that it was much older than previously assumed

 charted the extinction of species and suggested a common ancestor of humans and apes

 described how environmentally similar, but isolated, regions have comparable, but distinct, groups of mammals and birds

Alexander von Humboldt

Explorer, naturally, such as (-), investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment in the ways these relationships depend on geography, laying the foundations for biogeography, ecology, and ethology. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction and the mutability of species, and then later, the cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life.

Jane Goodall; Louis Leakey

Chimpanzees in Tanzania; the person this scientist assisted

Pliny the Elder

body of knowledge would eventually come together in the astonishing 37-volume compilation Naturalis Historia, which includes more than 2000 observations from 100 different authors. The foundation for modern biology and physiology is laid by (-)descriptions, which are sometimes confined to Classics college lectures and the footnotes of historical papers. However, their influence on contemporary neuroscience, psychiatry, and neurology is frequently underappreciated.

Robert Hooke

Cells in oak bark, micrographia

Schleiden and Schwann

They are known for the advancement of cell theory in which cells are the basic units of life.

 developed ways to distinguish animal cell membranes and nuclei under the microscope, and began to study animal tissues in early development, including the liver, kidneys, and pancreas

 proposed that all living things are made up of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of life—the two principles that became the basis of cell theory

Watson and Crick

DNA double helix

Gregor Mendel

Pea plants; inheritance

Thomas Hunt Morgan

And then, in the early 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel's work led to the rapid development of genetics by a name (-) and his students and by the 1930s, the combination of population genetics and natural selection in the Neo Darwinian synthesis arose. By conducting statistical studies, (-) believes that genetic traits are passed on in fruit flies. He broke new grounds in genetics during the first decade of the 20th century, and his work confirmed that genes are stored in chromosomes inside the cell nuclei.

Rudolf Vichrow

was an eminent pathologist and politician, widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential physicians in history. A founding father of both pathology and social medicine, Virchow analyzed the effects of disease in various organs and tissues of the human body. He identified that diseases are caused by malfunctioning cells.

Charles Darwin

The Origin of Species; organic evolution, natural selection, proboscis

Alfred Wegener

Continental Drift Theory

Karl Ernst von Baer

Father of Embryology, ova, germ layer theory, blastula

Creationism; Divine Theory

is the belief that the Bible, especially the first few chapters of Genesis, are infallible accounts of the origins of the cosmos and all life on earth, including humans.

Spontaneous Generation Theory

According to Aristotle, if nonliving material contained pneuma (also known as "vital heat"), life may have developed from it. He cited various instances of creatures reappearing in places where they had previously been absent as proof, like the seemingly sudden arrival of fish in a fresh pool of water.

Interplanetary/Cosmozoic Theory

The idea that "seeds" or "spores" of life can survive interstellar travel and disperse throughout the cosmos is known as panspermia. As a result, life could be delivered to and begin a new evolution on all habitable planets, moons, and satellites. This hypothesis has the effect that life on Earth may have originated at some other location in the universe and that its evolution on Earth is the result of a fertilization of the planet through such interplanetary or interstellar transfer of "seeds."

Philosophical Theory of Eternity

The notion that life has always existed and will continue to exist indefinitely; also known as the steady state.

Marine Theory

The idea that life originated in the oceans, where the conditions were favorable for the emergence of primitive life forms.

Evolutionary or Physico-Chemical Theory

The prevailing scientific theory that proposes life originated through a gradual process of chemical evolution and natural selection, leading to the emergence of complex organisms; also known as abiogenesis.

RNA World

Other ideas include the (-) hypothesis and the metabolism first type of disease. Also, on this the organic compounds to early earth by meteorites and other celestial objects so we are faced with several theories now on the origin of life and probably a weak link to the still development of science until we finally accept more feasible theories on the origin of life.

Movement, Respiration, Organization, Metabolism, Reproduction (sexual and asexual), Irritability, Growth, Nutrition, Metabolism, Heredity, Adaptation, structure and form (form and structure

 It's an action by an Organism, or part of the Organism causing a change of position or place.

The chemical reaction inside their cells that breakdown nutrients, molecules and release energy for metabolism is a term

The study of life on Earth extends from the microscopic scale of the molecules and cells that make up organisms to the global scale of the entire living planet. As biologists, we can divide this enormous range into different levels of

is defined as the sum of all chemical reactions in the body

It is a process of production of offspring; It entails creating a replica or a likeness to ensure the survival of species. (2 types)

the ability to respond to environmental stimuli

the constant expansion of an organism's size through time.

is the taking in of materials for energy, growth and development plans

a manifestation of life, removable from Organism, of the waste products of metabolism.

the ability to pass on genetic material, that is the DNA from the parent to offspring, and this can be in the form of phenotypic traits and genotypic

Every living thing has evolved at some point in time and must continue to do so to adapt to an ever-changing environment.

(-) is what builds a living organism; (-) refers to an organism's internal and exterior physical composition