Chapter 1: Major Themes of Anatomy and Physiology

Merged flashcards from Chapter 1, McGraw Hill Anatomy and Physiology Ninth Edition, by Kenneth S. Saladin.

Form and function

Anatomy and physiology complement and cannot be separated from each other

Cell theory

All structure and function result from cells

Evolution

The human body is a product of evolution

Hierarchy of complexity

Human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity

Homeostasis

Most physiology is to maintain stable internal conditions

Gradients and flow

Matter and energy tend to flow down gradients

Radiography (X-rays)

Discovered by William Roentgen in 1885 and makes up over half of all imaging; dense tissue appears white and substances can be swallowed to show tissues

Computed tomography (CT scan)

Formerly called a CAT scan; these are low-intensity X-rays and show slice-type images from computers

Magnetic resource imaging (MRI)

Superior quality to CT scan and no X-ray exposure that is best for soft-tissue, but more expensive and not suitable for those with magnets

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Shows real time changes in the brain

Positron emission tomography (PET) scan

Assesses metabolic state of tissues by injecting radioactive glucose; tissues using glucose will glow while damaged tissues will appear dark

Sonography

Second-oldest and second most widely used; uses high-frequency sound waves to echo back from internal organs and has no X-ray exposure but isn’t very sharp

Renaissance naming conventions

Structures were named after people or varied across countries

Worldwide naming conventions

Established in 1895, unique Latin names were used

Modern naming conventions

Established in 1998 in the Terminologia Anatomica, providing Latin and English equivalents

Scientific terms

Root (stem) with a core meaning, with vowels to join roots and prefixes to modify the root meaning

Acronyms

Pronounceable words formed from the first letter or first few letters of a series of words (e.g. PET scan)

Plural forms

Many forms; cortex - cortices, corpus - corpora

Adjectives

Follow the noun it modifies; biceps brachii

Adjectival forms

Different than the noun form, e.g. brachium (n., arm) vs brachii (adj., of the arm)

Spelling

Very important - some are spelled similarly with very different meanings

Organization

Living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things (a human vs a rock)

Cellular composition

Living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells

Metabolism

Internal chemical reactions

Responsiveness

Ability to sense and react to stimuli

Movement

Movement of the organism or substances within the organism

Homeostasis

Maintaining relatively stable internal conditions by countering mechanisms that oppose it

Development

Differentiation and growth

Reproduction

Producing copies and genes to offspring

Evolution

Changes in genes

Physiological variation

Sex, age, weight, diet, physical activity, genetics, and environment; failure to consider may lead to overmedication of elderly or women on the basis of men

Claude Bernard

Scientist who found consistent internal conditions despite changing external conditions (like temperature)

Walter Cannon

Coined the term homeostasis

Negative feedback loop

A dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point, reversing a change that goes too far away the point

Receptors

Structures that sense change in the body

Integrating control center

Control center that processes the sensory information and directs the response

Effector

Cell or organ that carries the final corrective action to restore homeostasis

Positive feedback loops

Self-amplifying cycles in the same direction; change makes more change (can sometimes be dangerous like runaway fevers, but also helpful in childbirth)

Gradient

A difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points; matter and energy tends to flow down gradients and movement in the opposite direction requires metabolic energy

Organisms

Made of organ systems

Organ systems

Made of organs

Organs

Made of tissues

Tissues

Made of cells

Cells

Made of organelles

Organelles

Made of molecules

Molecules

Made of atoms

Reductionism

Large, complex systems can be understood by studying simpler components

Holism

“Emergent properties” of the whole organism cannot be predicted from the properties of the separate parts

Anatomical Variation

No two humans are exactly alike; anatomy based on most common organization (people may lack muscles, vertebrae, kidneys, etc.)

Cadaver dissection

Cutting and separating body tissues to reveal relationships

Comparative anatomy

Studying multiple species to learn about form, function, and evolution

Exploratory surgery

Doing surgery to view inside the body

Medical imaging

Viewing inside the body without surgery

Gross anatomy

Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

Histology

Examination of tissues with microscope

Histopathology

Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

Cytology

Study of structure and function of cells

Ultrastructure

Viewing detail under an electron microscope

Neurophysiology

The physiology of the nervous system

Endocrinology

The physiology of hormones

Pathophysiology

Mechanisms of disease

Comparative physiology

Study of different species to learn about body functions, helps develop new drugs and medical processes

Hippocrates

Greek physician known for the Hippocratic Oath and termed the “Father of Medicine,” looked for natural instead of godly causes of disease

Aristotle

Believed diseases had had supernatural or physical causes, and that complex structures were built from simpler parts

Claudius Galen

Physician to Roman gladiators who did animal dissections because cadaver usage was banned; influential even in the Middle Ages

Maimonides

Jewish physician who wrote 10 influential medical texts; was physician to an Egyptian Sultan

Avicenna ibn Sina

Termed the “Galen of Islam,” he combined Galen and Aristotle’s findings and wrote the Canon of Medicine

Andreas Vesalius

Physician who wrote On the Structure of the Human Body in 1543, the first atlas of anatomy, after getting Church approval to dissect cadavers instead of just barber-surgeons

William Harvey

Father of physiology who wrote On the Motion of the Heart in 1628, realized blood circulated in and out of heart

Robert Hooke

Made improvements to the microscope with two lenses and observed what we call cells; published Micrographia in 1665

Antony van Leeuwenhoek

Invented a single-lens microscope with high magnification; observed microscopic objects like cells and lake water

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

Examined wide variety of specimens and concluded that all organisms were made of cells (the first tenet of cell theory), where all functions of the body were effects of cells

Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes

Philosophers who invented a systemic way of measuring trends in nature through generalization

Science and scientific methods

Set standards for truth

The inductive method

Method by Francis Bacon which involves making numerous observations until confident in making generalizations; knowledge of anatomy obtained by this method

Proof in science

Reliable and repeatedly confirmed

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method

Investigator formulates a hypothesis, or an educated speculation or answer to the question; most physiological knowledge gained this way

Falsifiability

If something is scientifically true, evidence must be specified to prove it wrong

Sample size

Number of subjects in a study

Controls

Group that resembles treatment group but does not receive treatement

Psychosomatic effects

Effect of state of mind on physiology; tested through placebo

Experimenter bias

Avoided with double-blind study

Statistical testing

Statement of probability that treatment was effective

Peer review

Evaluation by other experts in the field, prior to funding or publication

Scientific Fact

Information that can be independently verified

Law of Nature

Generalization about the way matter and energy behave as a verbal statement or formula

Theory

An explanation of set of statements from facts, laws, and hypotheses, which summarizes what we know

Charles Darwin

Wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871), books about human evolution and their relationship to other animals

Evolution

Change in genetic composition of population of organisms; like antibiotic resistance by bacteria

Natural selection

How evolution works using selection pressures (forces that promote success of others) and adaptations (features that enable organism to succeed)

Chimpanzee

The closest relative to humans, ~98.4% same DNA

Evolutionary relationships

Helps us choose animals for biomedical research; rats are used more than chimpanzees

Primates

Order of mammals to which humans, monkeys, and apes belong

Bipedalism

Standing and walking on two legs to help spot predators and carry food, tools, and infants