Family diversity

The Rapoports and family diversity

What do the rapoports think of family diversity?

diversity is of central importance in understanding family life today

we have moved away from the traditional nuclear family as the dominant family type to a plurality of family types

to really understand family life we must take into account 5 types of diversity - Cultural, organisational, social class, generational and lifecourse

understanding these differences is both positive and necessary if we want to understand families in the 21 century

The Rapoports and family diversity

what is organisational diversity and what are some examples of it?

families differ in their structure, family type and who does what. Families can look very different internally and externally 

a variety of factors may lead to this organisational diversity - divorce, feminism, change in law etc

E.g. rise in child-less couples as a result of feminism 

Equality act 2010 encourages same-sex couples

encouraged joint conjugal roles

equal pay act 1970

sex discrimination act 1975

2017 - 4.94 million married couples with kids in UK

1.25 million cohabiting couples with kids in uk

1.78 million lone parents with kids in UK

The Rapoports and family diversity

What is the consequence of organisational diversity

represents a greater shift towards family diversity because people now have greater choice over their families. 

Also, there is now more flexibility over family types as the traditional nuclear family is no longer the norm

= we cant generalise anymore

The Rapoports and family diversity

What is cultural diversity and what are some examples of it

globalisation and migration has led to a growth in ethnic diversity. the religious or cultural beliefs of an ethnic community can have an influence on the preferred family type

it can also influence the size of a family, the division of labour, access to marriage and divorce etc

E.G. higher rates of marriage and lower rates of divorce in pakistani, bangladeshi and islamic people

Higher rate of single parent families amongst african-carribean households

2021 census - the next common high level ethnic group in the UK was ‘asian, asian british or asian welsh accounting for 9.3% of the overall population. also had the largest percentage point increase from 2011, up from 7.5%

The Rapoports and family diversity

What is the consequence of cultural diversity

broadening family types in the uk cannot be ignored. As multiculturalism increases, new values and family types are exported to the UK, increasing the number of families beyond the nuclear norm

The Rapoports and family diversity

What is social class diversity and what are some examples of it

a lot of writing about the family assumes that family life as experienced in a middle-class family is the same for other social classes. Availability of resources, quality of housing, leisure opportunities etc all impact the nature of families and family life

This impacts the family in terms of how children are socialised, the types of family people live in, the age at which people marry and have children, divorce etc

E.G. instant vs deferred gratification, middle class tend to live isolated and live in the privatised nuclear family, working class people may have children later so they can focus on their career. Working class have stronger links to extended family - may live close because you rely on them more, money, free childcare

in 2017-20 52% of working class women had children by the age of 30 compared to only 39% of middle-class women.

The Rapoports and family

diversity

what are the consequences of social class diversity

social class can effect access to resources, parenting styles and cultural values, which can manifest in the family through diversity.

Most analysis of families is from a middle class perspective so acknowledging the differences highlights the barriers families can face.

As well as highlighting what is unique about families from different classes

The Rapoports and family diversity

What is life stage/life course diversity and what are some examples of it?

Peope have diversity in family experiences depending on what stage they are in their lives - family life is never static but always changing.

Whether you are a child, adult or old can all influence the type of family you find yourself 

each life stage comes with different priorities which influence family matters such as marriage, children, gender roles etc

Families are ever evolving to reflect our journey

e.g. you can be born into a nuclear family, turn into a boomerang family after uni and end up in a one-person household when youre older

The Rapoports and family diversity

What are the consequences of life stage diversity

there is no such thing as a ‘permanent family/universal family’. Everyone will experience family diversity at some point

The Rapoports and family diversity

What is generational diversity and what are some examples of it

different generations have different norms and values, reflecting the historical period which they were born in.

What is the norm in terms of family life for one generation may not be the norm for the next.

Between the generations we can see differences in average age of marriage, the size of the family and acceptable family structures and gender roles.

E.G. trad gender roles in older generations, large family size in the 1950s with nuclear family vs now etc

LGBTQ+ Charity Stonewall and ipsos - 40% gen z experience same sex attraction, 53% exclusively straight VS 77% of baby boomers are straight

The Rapoports and family diversity

What is the consequence of generational diversity

each new generation embraces greater family diversity, this means ever evolving family types and the rejection of one size fits all approach of traditional theories

The Rapoports and family diversity

Evaluation positive

useful to understanding family life today, particularly since many laws have now been passed that increase family diversity

Equal pay act 1970 - organisational

equality act 2010- generational

marriage law reform act 1969- life stage

EU- cultural

The Rapoports and family diversity

AO3

writing in 1982- new types of diversity. Sexuality as a type of diversity may need to be considered due to growth beyond lesbian,gay, heterosexual - rise in bisexuality,pansexuality,asexuality etc

most common type is the nuclear, shouldnt exaggerate the impact of diverse family types

cultural diversity - not to reinforce stereotypes, acknowledge that the affects of culture may reduce from generation to generation

The Rapoports and family diversity

Explain chester and the neo- conventional family

recognises theres been increased family diversity in recent years but does not regard it as very significant.

the only important change is a move from the dominant, traditional nuclear family to the neo-conventional family. - Dual earner in which both spouses go out to work

most people are not choosing to live in alternatives to the nuclear family and most aspire to be part of it or already are.

Criticises household surveys and statistics - they snapshot a temporary moment in time, dont show that most people will spend a major part of their lives in a nuclear family

The Rapoports and family diversity

Chester AO3

Although the nuclear family is statistically the most common, there is a decline in birth rates in uk which suggests that in the future less people will aspire to be part of the nuclear family

we havent moved away from the traditional nuclear family, E.G. women do dual burden and triple shift

chester doesnt take into account any of the current issues - cost of living crisis, inflation = children cost too much money so couples decide not to have them

Postmodernism and family diversity

what is postmodernism?

before postmodern society, there was modern society characterised by industralisation and capitalism, stable social life and social structures such as class and gender dictating the life course.

E.G. in modern society it was the norm to get married and have children, this was dictated by class and gender and it was rare to see families break down = a stable society 

However, since the 1950s there has been a shift in the way society looks and operates, called a postmodern society

Postmodernism and family diversity

what are the 5 main features of a postmodern society

rapid social change and fragmentation

decline of meta narratives

growth of consumerism and choice

globalisation

media and technology

Postmodernism and family diversity

What is rapid social change and fragmentation and what are some examples

the pace of change is fast and new norms have been introduced to society. Rapid social change has also made society less predictable and less stable as the world around us is ever changing

E.G. divorce laws, homosexuality, gender roles, fashion

Postmodernism and family diversity

what is the decline of meta narratives and what are some examples

we have lost faith in big ideas or explanations like religion and science.

It could also be used to reject big theories such as functionalism and marxism

we reject or lack faith in their ideas of how society should be run or how people should live - we seek the truth in ourselves and what pleases us

Postmodernism and family diversity

what is the growth of consumerism and choice

postmodern society has made us all consumers and decision makers. This is sometimes called a pick and mix society, and people are constantly ‘shopping around’ from a wide variety of products rather than conforming to old fashioned structures such as gender roles

Postmodernism and family diversity

What is globalisation

the growing interconnectedness of society because of media, travel

this brings people, nations etc into greater interconnectedness than ever

the world is shrinking in terms of space between people and nations

Postmodernism and family diversity

What is media and technology

the huge expansion of media technology such as digital, internet and now social media

technology could also link to reproductive technologies such as IVF

shapes society as most of our time is spent on media and technology

Postmodernism and family diversity

What impact do these 5 features of postmodern society have on the family?

People have more choice when it comes to family and relationships

families are less stable

increasing diversity

Contrasting with structural theories like functionalism and marxism, which were influenced by modernity, there is no one ideal or ‘normal’ family type

Cheal - takes the ideas of the rapoports even further and argues that family life now reflects the new, chaotic postmodern stage we find ourselves in

Postmodernism and family diversity

what type of family could consumerism and freedom of choice create

same-sex

remaining childless

reconstituted families

serial monogamy (having several relationships in life)

Postmodernism and family diversity

what type of family could technological society create

living apart together

serial monogamy through dating apps

(if paired with globalisation) = extended family

Postmodernism and family diversity

what sort of family type can globalisation cause

living apart together

brasian couples (british + asian)

Postmodernism and family diversity

what sort of family type can rapid social change and fragmentation cause

reconstituted family

same sex

lone parent

Postmodernism and family diversity

what sort of family can the decline of meta narratives cause

cohabitation

more serial monogamy

same sex

divorced

Postmodernism and family diversity

What does Judith stacey 1998 argue in her divorce-extended family research

women have more freedom than ever before to shape their family arrangements to meet their needs and free themselves from patriarchal oppression

women are the driving force behind changes in the family

many women reject the traditional housewife role and had chosen extremely varied life paths

divorce extended family = members are connected by divorce rather than marriage. E.G. ex in-laws, former husbands new partner

far too small to make any conclusions about the effects of postmodernism. Only focused on two women/families who lived in the same area

Postmodernism and family diversity

What is some research that supports postmodernism

2022 YouGov survey- 63% of uk adults think marriage is an outdated institution, was 68% in 2019

2023 YouGov survey only 22% of the uk population thinks it matters that people are married before they have children

Roseneil 2005- links the development of chosen families to the breakdown of the heteronorm - the belief that all intimate relationships should be based on homosexuality. TV shows like friends, and will and grace highlight that there are alternatives to the nuclear family

Postmodernism and family diversity

What does david morgan summarise postmodernism

it is pointless to make large scale generalisations about the family as if it were a single thing, as theories such as functionalism do.

Instead, family is whatever you choose it to be and whatever arrangements those involved choose to call their family

Sociologists should focus their attention on how people create their own diverse family types and practices through life course analysis.

Postmodernism and family diversity

what is life course analysis?

historically, intimate relationships and personal lives were strongly influenced by traditional norms and values and customs.

The sequence of our relationships were relatively stable e.g. marriage and children, and this was dictated by traditional norms and gender roles

Postmodernism and family diversity

What does Levin point out about life course analysis

it was in essence compulsory because strong social norms prescribed that this was normal and the socially approved way to live your relationships

Postmodernism and family diversity

What do Allan and crowe and levin point out has happened since the 1960s

there has ben a huge shift in our life course via

Increase in divorce

decline in marriage

cohabitation being on the rise

changing labour market

growth of non-conventional family types

Postmodernism and family diversity

why might feminists criticise postmodern views of choice in creating relationships

postmodernists ignore structural factors of patriarchy and how they limit womens choices in relationships

E.G. women may not have the choice of divorce as they may not be able to support themselves on their wage. Dual burden, triple shift means they have to work part time - gender norms still influence family

Restricted sexual freedoms - names like slag may be used against her if shes had/has multiple partners

Postmodernism and family diversity

do we have to consider other people before making decisions about families and family life

the idea that we are totally free to do what we want ignores the fact that we are still connected to people and must take them into account

E.G. divorce, many parents think long and hard before choosing this

Postmodernism and family diversity

IVF can range anywhere from £4,990 to nearly £11,000 depending on the hospital

ignores how social class can restrict options. Some choices around family life are a privilege only certain people can afford, divorce is another example

E.G. solicitors fees, having to rent while divorce is finalised

Postmodernism and family diversity

according to statistics, there were about 8.2 families with children in the uk in 2021. 63% of which were married and 14% cohabiting

although we have greater choice, postmodernism perhaps exaggerates its effect on changing the family.

this research shoes that the nuclear family is still the norm and still desired

Postmodernism and family diversity

postmodern theories are more likely to reflect western families and choices

ignores global differences in family life, and while the uk may adopt the consumerist/individualised approach to family this isnt the case everywhere

E.G. in italy they are collectivist and family look after each other - in some cultures there is no choice

E.G. being gay could get you killed in places like Iran

Individualisation and family diversity

What is individualisation thesis?

influenced by postmodernism

their main focus is increasing individual choice in families and relationships and the decline of social structures such as class and gender in shaping our family lives.

we have become freed or disembedded from traditional roles and structures, leaving us with more freedom to choose how to live our lives

Individualisation and family diversity

What does individualisation thesis cause within the family?

decline of traditional norms

negotiated families

risk society

Individualisation and family diversity

what does Giddens say the reason for the decline of traditional norms is and how has this transformed relationships and family life

contraception - sex and intimacy takes priority over reproduction as the main reason we choose a relationship

growing female independence- provided new opportunities in education and work

lone parent families have more financial ability to be independent 

childless families have more freedom around reproduction

dual earner families are able to push for women to work

one person households have more freedom for women

Individualisation and family diversity

What are some of Giddens’ key studies

the pure relationship - it exists to satisfy our needs, we stay together because of love and attraction, not because of duty or tradition. However, with more choice comes less stability as the relationship can be ended at will, creating more diversity

same sex families of choice- same-sex relationships lead the way towards new family types and creates more democratic relationships - not influenced by tradition the same way heterosexual relationships are. E.G. gender roles are mostly absent which allows them to develop relationships based on choice and what actively meets their own needs

Individualisation and family diversity

what are negotiated families and who came up with them

Beck’s negotiated families do not conform to the traditional family norm, but vary according to the wishes and expectations of their members. This family is a bit like a contract, you get to negotiate gender roles, division of labour etc

the rise can be linked to:

greater gender equality - challenged male domination in all spheres. Women now expect quality in marriage and work

greater individualisation - peoples actions are influenced by self interest rather than obligation

Individualisation and family diversity

why might greater gender equality lead to couples negotiating relationships?

women have freedom to express their wants and needs rather than being subservient

raises womens standards as she expects more from a partner

Individualisation and family diversity

why does self interest lead to greater negotiation

people look to gain things for themselves

everyone wants to be in a good position

want to ensure they are happy in the relationship

Individualisation and family diversity

What is some research that supports the negotiated family

american sociological review: 
330 unmarried young adults ages 18 to 32 from all over the country

62% of higher education women and 59.3% of women without a college education said they preferred an egalitarian relationship.

63% of men with some college education and 82.5% of those with less education responded in the same way

Individualisation and family diversity

Who proposed the idea of a risk society and what is it

beck highlights that individualisation contributes to a risk society where individuals must constantly make choices and face uncertainties about their personal and family lives. 

As a result, we have to conduct a cost benefit analysis before making any decision e.g. cohabitation, marriage, divorce etc which were previously dictated by tradition and thus had no risk

Individualisation and family diversity

what family types could develop in a risk society?

living apart together

childless families - risk of having children = too high

lone parent

cohabiting families - dont want to marry right away so cohabit first

Individualisation and family diversity

what is the zombie family and who came up with it?

beck

the increasingly unstable nuclear family has created the zombie family.

It appears to be alive when in reality its dead, we used to be able to get support from the family, but we cant anymore because its unstable

this is because it can no longer fulfil this role due to being under constant threat from external pressures and changes.

Individualisation and family diversity

What is the difference between postmodernism and individualisation views of the family

postmodernism = its your choice, total freedom with no strings attached

individualisation = freedom is forced upon us

Individualisation and family diversity
are there any factors that still shape our relationship choices

the theory is too individualistic and doesnt acknowledge wider social constraint

e.g. the law in some countries prohibits homosexuality, religious laws and customs prohibit divorce and sex outside of marriage in some cultures

even in western countries, stigma about homosexuality may stop someone from coming out as gay

Individualisation and family diversity

do some groups have more privilege in making choices about relationships

feminists would criticise becks idea of the negotiated family

e.g. gender pay gap, lack of childcare means that she may not start a relationship on equal terms, has less chance to negotiate

also criticise giddens with gender norms for sexuality ‘slut’

higher social classes can afford to have more choice and to take more risks -e.g. being able to pay for divorce

Individualisation and family diversity

think of the pure relationship, is it as simple as ending it when we no longer get satisfaction from it?

individualisation ignores wider responsibilities we may have and how its not always as simple as having a pure relationship.

e.g. may need to consider children, in laws and the feelings of the other person

giddens can be criticised for proposing a selfish/ emotionally void view of relationships