umich psych 250 exam 3

What are the short-term consequences of divorce?

• Instability & conflict; drop in family income

• Parental stress and disorganization

Typically which are worse off after the divorce? Boys or girls?

Boys don't do as well as girls with divorce (maybe bc mother and daughter get close)

What are the long-term consequences of divorce?

• At age 7, children whose parents later divorced already had more emotional problems than other children
• Emotional problems increased over time and persisted into adulthood

What are the 4 psychosocial challenges of middle childhood?

1. `The Challenge to Achieve

2. The Challenge of Self-Understanding

3. The Challenge of Peer Relationships

4. The Challenge of Family Relationships

Erikson's Theory of Industry vs. Inferiority

Industry:

• Developing a sense of competence & a willingness to achieve
• Fostered by adult expectations & a child's drive for mastery

Inferiority:

• Lack of confidence in own ability do things well
• Family environment, teachers & peers contribute to negative feelings

Changes in self-concept during the middle ages

A more balanced & complex sense of self:

• Become more competent
• Fewer extreme all-or-none descriptions
• Social comparisons
• Ideal vs. real self
• Peers as a reference group becomes important!

True or False: Physical appearance correlates with all types pf self esteem

True

Hierarchy structure of self-esteem during middle ages

• Academic
• Social
• Physical Competence
• Physical Appearance

When does one's self esteem rise and decline?

Self esteem rises until 4th grade and then it declines as children develop a more realistic sense of self

Define culture of children

The habits, styles, values, & rules that set children apart from adult society

Benefits of peers

• Offer sociability & a sense of belonging
• Help shape definitions of self
• Provide opportunities for learning (Cooperation & competition, Leadership, Perspective- taking, Loyalty & self-disclosure)

Definition of friendship

Friendship is a mutually agreed-on relationship in which loyalty, intimacy, & TRUST are defining features.

What does childhood friendship development look like at age 10?

By 10, most children have one "best" friend. Looking for friend that they feel they have something in common with. Someone who "gets them"

No close friends at age 11 is linked to what?

Depression by age 13

Definition of peer acceptance

Likability or extent to which a child is viewed as a worthy social partner

Definition of social cognition

The ability to understand social interactions—is key to popularity!

What predicts current & future psychological adjustment

Peer acceptance

What are the 5 categories of social acceptance?

1. Popular (1/3 kids considered "popular")
2. Average (1/2 of the classroom)
3. Controversial (kids who received lots of votes…both positive and negative
   tend to be aggressive and distractive) (ie: class clown…you love them or hate them)
4. Rejected (actively disliked
   majority of negative votes
5. Neglected (but NOT rejected!)
   (kids that were not picked + or -)

Types of popularity- Popular-prosocial

Popular-prosocial children at every age are well-liked because they are "kind, trustworthy and cooperative"
easy to get along with

Types of popularity- Popular-antisocial

Popular-antisocial children who are "athletic, cool, dominant, arrogant, & aggressive" emerge around fifth grade.
very high in social status, they are feared and respected, but not necessarily well liked

Types of rejected children- Aggressive rejected

• Aggressive-rejected children are disliked because of their antagonistic, confrontational & often impulsive behavior.
• Deficits in perspective and social regulation
  research suggests that misinterpret social cues and lack regulation

Types of rejected children- Withdrawn rejected

• Children are disliked because of their passive and socially awkward behavior
• Social anxiety: quite, timid, are not comfortable in their own skin

What comes first- social acceptance or social skills?

Social acceptance

Example of aggressive-rejected children (Ken Dodge's research)

• Researcher showed them videos of social situations (kid gets knocked over on bus)
• Kid who was well liked tend to interpret video as an accident and are proactive in asking question
• Some were passive to how they reacted, might be on purpose or accident, ignored it
• Combat ready group much more likely to interpret it as on purpose

Bullying

• Involves repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm.
• Includes:
  Physical (hitting, shoving, kicking)
  Verbal (teasing, name-calling)
  Relational (destroying peer acceptance)
  Cyberbullying (using electronic means to bully)

Who are the victims of bullying?

Victims tend to be withdrawn-rejected (i.e., passive & physically weak) children with no friend to support them.

What happens when aggressive-rejected children are bullied (bully victims)?

• They are bullied and are also the bully
• These kids long term have the most trouble

Who are the bullird?

• Most bullies are NOT rejected! They tend to be high-status and powerful

• Bullies are socially perceptive—but LACK empathy! Often they "troll" for potential targets before choosing a victim.

• Boy bullies physically attack smaller, weaker boys. Girl bullies verbally harass shyer, soft-spoken girls.

Family factors associated with bullying:

• Parental hostility & lack of warmth
• Erratic power assertive discipline
• Lack of parental monitoring
• Tolerance of early aggressive behavior
• Exposure to marital conflict or violence
• Physical abuse
• Hostile siblings

Definition of family structure

Refers to the legal & genetic relationships among relatives living in the same household

What is more important family function or family structure

Family function

Are divorce & remarriage static events?

• Divorce & remarriage are NOT static events
• Best viewed as a series of transitions that impact children.

Divorce statistics in America

• Dramatic rise in divorce rate since early 1960s -
• Has altered the structure of families.
• Almost 1/2 of all first marriages end in divorce
• 2/3 of divorced parents remarry & ½ of children will experience a 2nd divorce.

Definition of puberty

• Puberty (from Latin pubertas meaning "adult.") - Refers to the period of lifespan in which an individual becomes capable of sexual reproduction.

What are the 5 major physical changes of adolescence?

1. Growth spurt

2. Development of primary sex characteristics

3. Development of secondary sex characteristics
   (i.e.: pubic hair, voice lowering, ext)

4. Changes in body composition
   (i.e.: gaining and distribution of body fat)

5. Changes in circulation & respiration
   (greater strength and tolerance for excursive)

How does puberty work?

Puberty begins with the hypothalamus->to the pituitary gland->to the adrenal glands (HPA axis) & gonads (HPG axis).

When does puberty start?

8/9

When does the growth spurt start and what is the sequence?

• Average female growth spurt is 2 years earlier than average male growth spurt.

• Girls: 10½ years

• Boys: 12½ years

• Sequence is weight, height, muscle

Growth is

Head, hands, feet ➔ Arms & legs ➔ Trunk (Torso)

Primary sex characteristics

Body parts directly involved in reproduction (ie: testicles, ovaries)

Secondary sex characteristics

Traits not necessary for reproduction (e.g., body odor, acne, breast development, hair growth, deepening of voice)

Is the timing of puberty universal?

• Sequence is universal BUT tempo and timing varies
• Culture has an effect

Why should high school not start until 9am?

• Most teenagers prefer to stay up late & sleep in late (i.e., "phase-delay").

• Nighttime increase in melatonin begins about 2 hours later in teens after puberty.

• Sleep deprivation is associated with a higher risk of mood disorders, insomnia, and falling asleep at the wheel

Factors of timing of puberty

• Genes
• Body Fat
• Hormones
• Stress

Is sexual activity in adolescence associated with problems?

Age 16 or later is NOT associated with problems

What is early sexual activity (before 16) associated with?

• Experimentation with drugs & alcohol
• Lower levels of religious involvement
• Higher levels of depressive symptoms
• Lower academic achievement

What is the most common form of safe sex with American teenagers?

Condom

Stats on STI and AIDS with American teenagers

• Sexually active teens have the highest rates of STIs (e.g., gonorrhea, Chlamydia, herpes).
• 1 in 6 teens have an STI!
• Rates of HIV are NOT declining despite greater public awareness
  -Number of HIV-infected adolescents doubles nearly every year.

Explain the study…

• Oh, the tangled web we weave…. (Bearman et al., 2004)

• A study of one midwest high school found few sexually active teens had multiple partners

• HOWEVER only 1/3 of relationships lasted 6 months

• One infected person in the "network" of sexual activity could infect the entire school

What is the order of developing intimacy?

Same-sex friendships
Loose association of "boy" & "girl" groups
Small mixed-sex groups
Pairing up of couples

What is dating based off of?

Dating often based on superficial intimacy NOT genuine closeness.

What is a boy's first sexual experience?

1. Often masturbation & later a "hook up"
2. Is met with overwelming approval from peers.
3. Is typically described as "exciting and satisfying"

What is a girls' first sexual experience?

1. Is with a boy she feels close to & "in love with"
2. Is often greeted with ambivalence or disapproval.
3. Is typically described as "being afraid, guilty, worried and embarrassed."

Development of sexual orientation

1. Feeling different (~6-12 years)
2. Confusion (same-sex attraction: 11-12 boys & 14-15 girls)
   3.Self acceptance

• Roughly 2-3% of teenagers identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgendered.

What are piaget's developmental stages?

1.Sensorimotor (Birth - 2 years)

2. Preoperational (2 - 6 years)
3. Concrete operational (6 - 11 years)
4. Formal operations ( 11+ years)

Piaget's formal operations

• Thinking is abstract
• Thinking is NO longer tied to concrete or personal experiences
• Adolescents can now engage in hypothetical thought
• Reasoning about if-then propositions that do not reflect reality

Inductive vs Deductive reasoning

• Inductive (or bottom-up) reasoning dominates the middle childhood years
• By age 14, adolescents are capable of deductive (or top-down) reasoning.

What is the dual-process model?

• The notion that there are two pathways in the brain.
• Analytic: logical, hypothetical-deductive
• Intuitive: emotional, experimental

The Klaczynski irrational adolescent study?

• Presented logic problems to 9-, 12-, & 15-years-olds.
• Almost every adolescent was analytical
• However, 73% made at least one analytic error where they intuitively jumped to a wrong conclusion.
• Logical thinking improved with age & education (but not IQ).

As we age, our thinking moves from processing to more _ processing. Overall, adolescents tend to favor intuitive rather than analytic thinking

• As we age, our thinking moves from intuitive processing to more analytical processing

Overall, adolescents tend to favor _ rather than _ thinking.

• Overall, adolescents tend to favor intuitive rather than analytic thinking

Adolescent egocentrism

A characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others.

Personal fable

Belief that you are so unique, that no one else can understand you (thoughts and experiences)

Invincibility fable

Immune to common dangers and threats (Belief that nothing bad can happen to you —> you are the exception)

Imaginary audience

• You are the focus of everyones attention; source of self consciences (Belief that other people are watching you)
• More intense for girls
• Peaks around age 15
• Declines with confidence

Limbic system

• Area of brain that processes emotional stimuli
• Matures at puberty

Prefrontal cortex

• Source of decision making & impulse control
• Does NOT mature until about age 25

Why do teens engage in risky behavior?

• Teens engage in risky behavior because they evaluate the consequences differently than adults.
• Ex: Decision to smoke pot at party

Dangers of Technology (Gentile, 2009) study:

The Study: Ethnically diverse sample of 1,000 teens. Participants were asked about frequency of gaming & signs of possible addiction.

The Findings: Boys played 2x more than girls. More than half of boys played games rated "M".

Video game playing correlated with lower achievement & more behavior problems.

Erikson's Theory of Identity vs. Role connfusion

Identity: Defining who you are, what you value & where you will go in life

• COMMITMENT: vocation, personal relationships, sexual orientation, ethnic, political & religious ideology
• Resolution of identity crisis or exploration
• A crisis isn't always negative
  need exploration for crisis
  need crisis to commit to various things

Role Confusion: Lack of clear definition of self

• Restricted exploration in adolescence
• Earlier psychosocial conflicts not resolved
• Society restricts choices (ex: family pushing you to pursue certain careers)

What is the Identity Status Interview (Marcia, 1966) based off of?

• Degree of commitment
• Degree of exploration or crisis
• Both of which are erikson's focus

What are the 4 identity arenas?

• Religious
• Political
• Vocational
• Gender

Ethnic Identity

A person's sense of identity concerning ancestry or ethnic group membership

What is racial centrality and an example?

• How important race is in defining your identity?
  Example answer: "being being is important to me"

What is private regard and an example?

• How you feel about being a member of your race?
  Example: "I am happy I am black"

What is public regard and an example?

How you think others view your race?

Chavous et al. (2003) identified 4 MMRI clusters

• Buffering/defensive (29%)
• Low connectedness/high affinity (21%)
• Idealized (31%)
• Alienated (19%)

students most disengaged from school & most likely to drop out.

Alienated

__ students least likely to be in college 2 years after graduation

Buffering/defensive

Is adolescence a time of "storm & stress?"

Adolescence is a time of change—NOT necessarily a time of "storm & stress."

True or False?
Most teens & parents report close, harmonious relations with little conflict.

True

Are teen and parent conflict problems related in adolescence?

• Of the 25% of teens & parents who report problems, 80% were conflicted before adolescence.
• Only 5% of families who had good relations in childhood can expect serious problems in adolescence.

True or False?
There is very little emotional distance between teens & parents

False

Why do parents and teens fight?

• Conflict stems from different perspectives:
• Parents see conflict in terms of "right and wrong"
• Teens see conflict as a matter of personal choice

Dimensions of parent- adolescent closeness

• Communication
• Support
• Connectedness
• Control

Parents, Genes, & Risks study

The Study: 611 African American families in rural Georgia were assigned to either a parenting intervention or a comparison group.

• Goal was to measure intervention

Major Findings:
No differences in risky behaviors (i.e., sexual activity, alcohol/drug use) at age 14.

• HOWEVER, at age 16, the intervention did have a major impact on those with the…

What is the best predictor of mental health?

Quality of the parent-child relationship

Define cliques

Small groups of good friends that share similar attitudes, values and family background characteristics

Definecrowds

• Larger, more loosely organized groups based on reputation.
• Ex: Jocks, brains, nerds, druggies, skaters, populars, band geeks, & so on …

What are the different functions cliques & crowds serve?

Cliques—Social skills & intimacy
Crowds— identity and self concept

What are the 3 factors that determine clique membership?

• Orientation toward school
• Orientation toward teen culture
• Involvement in antisocial activity

What is selection when concerning childhood friendships?

• "Birds of a feather flock together"
• Regarding antisocial behavior
• Antisocial kids look for kids like themselves

What is facilitation when concerning childhood friendships?

• Peer influence
• Stronger for day-to-day preferences (e.g., clothing, music).

What is more important when it comes to drug use- selection or facilitation?

Selection & facilitation about equal when it comes to drug use

What is more important to adolescents- crowds or peer pressure?

• Significance of crowds & peer pressure peaks early in high school (9th grade).
• By 12th grade, importance of crowds & peer pressure declines as romantic relationships become more important.

What is the most common psychological problem of adolescence?

Depression (15%)

When do signs of depression increase and who is more likely to experience depression- girls or boys?

• Depressive symptoms increase sharply between 13 & 15 years.

• Girls are 2 times more likely than boys to report depressive symptoms.

What are some possible explanations of depression?

• Biological factors (e.g., hormones, genes)

• Adolescence may be more stressful

How do girls and boys deal with stress differently?

• Girls & boys COPE with stress differently

• Girls tend to "ruminate" AND experience more uncontrollable life stressors.

What are risk factors for delinquency in adolescents?

• Difficult temperament
• Low IQ & academic failure
• Rejection & antisocial peers
• Family & neighborhood