PSYB20H3 - Unit 6-9 (first part)

Cognition

Cognition

Mental activities related to knowing, acquiring knowledge, and solving problems.

Cognitive Development

Changes in mental skills and abilities throughout life.

Genetic Epistemology

The study of the origin of knowledge.

Cognitive Equilibrium

Achieving balance by resolving disequilibrium (imbalance).

Constructivist

Child builds understanding through interaction with the environment.

Organization

Rearranging schemes into more complex structures.

Adaptation

Modifying cognitive structures via assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

Fitting new experiences into existing schemes.

Accommodation

Modifying schemes to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

Stage from 0-2 years where children transition from reflexive to symbolic thought.

Object Permanence

Understanding objects exist even when unseen (emerges around 9 months).

Preoperational Stage

Stage from 2-7 years characterized by the development of symbolic thought.

Egocentrism

Difficulty taking others' perspectives (e.g., Three Mountain Task).

Centration

Focusing on one feature of a situation, leading to errors in conservation tasks.

Concrete Operational Stage

Stage from 7-11 years where children can perform mental operations on concrete objects/events.

Reversibility

Understanding actions can be reversed.

Decentering

Considering multiple aspects of a situation.

Conservation

Understanding quantity remains the same despite changes in form.

Formal Operational Stage

Stage from 11+ years where individuals can think abstractly and systematically.

Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning

Testing hypotheses systematically.

Inductive Reasoning

Drawing general conclusions from specific instances.

Scaffolding

Support provided by more knowledgeable individuals.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Range of tasks a child can perform with guidance but not independently.

Memory Strategies

Effortful techniques used to improve memory.

Rehearsal

Repeating information to remember it.

Semantic Organization

Organizing words based on meaning or categories.

Elaboration

Adding meaningful context or imagery to enhance memory.

Sustained Attention

The ability to focus on a specific stimulus or activity for a prolonged period.

Cognitive Inhibition

The ability to suppress irrelevant information or responses.

Implicit Cognition

Unconscious thought processes.

Explicit Cognition

Conscious thought processes.

Metacognition

Knowledge about cognition and the ability to regulate cognitive activities.

Fuzzy Trace Theory

Memories are encoded along a continuum from verbatim traces to fuzzy traces.

Verbatim Traces

Precise details (e.g., 'The movie took place in Toronto').

Fuzzy Traces

General gist (e.g., 'The movie took place somewhere').

Age Differences in Memory

Children (<6-7 years) use verbatim traces; older children/adults use fuzzy, gist-like traces.

Schemas

Mental frameworks formed by repeated exposure to information.

Scripts

Schemas for events, representing the sequence of typical occurrences in familiar contexts (e.g., ordering food at a restaurant).

Event Memory

Long-term memory for events.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal, significant events, developed during preschool years and strengthened by parent-child discussions.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall events from infancy, possibly due to early memories being stored in sensory/action formats.

Testing Preverbal Memory

Children (2-3 years old) played with a 'Magic Shrinking Machine'; vocabulary at the initial event predicted later descriptions.

Information-Processing Perspective Strengths

Offers detailed models of cognitive processes.

Information-Processing Perspective Criticisms

Lacks broad integration and oversimplifies human cognitive experiences.

Language

A system relating sounds/gestures to meaning.

Symbolic Characteristics of Language

Arbitrary units represent meaning.

Structured & Meaningful Characteristics of Language

Syntax affects meaning (e.g., 'The dog chased the cat' ≠ 'The cat chased the dog').

Displacement in Language

Can describe events beyond the present.

Generativity in Language

Infinite sentence creation from finite rules.

Learning (Empiricist) Perspective

Language develops through reinforcement and imitation.

Operant Conditioning

Language develops through reinforcement (Skinner).

Nativist Perspective

Inborn mechanism for language learning (Noam Chomsky).

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Inborn mechanism for language learning.

Broca's Area

Region of the brain responsible for language production.

Wernicke's Area

Region of the brain responsible for language comprehension.

Sensitive Period Hypothesis

Language acquisition is challenging after puberty.

Phonology

Study of the basic sounds of a language.

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound (e.g., /p/ and /b/).

Morphology

Rules about how sounds form words.

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning in language.

Semantics

Study of meaning in language.

Syntax

Rules for forming meaningful word combinations.

Pragmatics

Knowledge of effective and appropriate language use in social contexts.

Holophrases

Single-word utterances conveying an entire idea (e.g., 'Ball!' meaning 'I want the ball').

Overextension

Using one word for too many things (e.g., 'car' for all vehicles).

Underextension

Using one word too narrowly (e.g., 'candy' for only peppermint).

Telegraphic Speech

Telegraphic speech resembles a telegram, as it includes only the most essential words to convey meaning, omitting less critical elements like articles or auxiliary verbs.

Fast Mapping

Learn word meanings after only 1-2 exposures, starting around 13-15 months, and improves with age as toddlers use social and contextual cues.

Age Range for Telegraphic Speech

Typically begins between 18 to 24 months.

Characteristics of Telegraphic Speech

Focus on core words while leaving out smaller grammatical components due to processing and production constraints.

Examples of Telegraphic Speech

'More milk' instead of 'May I have more milk?'; 'Where ball?' instead of 'Where is the ball?'; 'Pretty dress' instead of 'You are wearing a pretty dress.'

Physiology and Emotional State

Emotions are tied to physiological responses and motivate adaptive actions.

Evolutionary Adaptation

Example: Anxiety helps detect danger.

Basic Emotions

Present at birth or shortly after, including interest, distress, disgust, and contentment.

Complex Emotions

Self-conscious emotions requiring cognitive development, emerging at 18+ months, such as embarrassment, shame, guilt, envy, and pride.

Emotional Display Rules

Cultural norms dictating when and how emotions should be expressed.

Emotion Regulation in Infancy

Initially supported by caregivers; gradually, infants develop self-regulation strategies.

Recognition of Emotions at 3 months

Infants can differentiate between emotions.

Social Referencing

Using another person's emotional reactions to interpret unclear situations.

Empathy Development

Begins as toddlers understand and express emotions, linked to the ability to recognize and experience the emotions of others.

Phases of Attachment

Asocial (0-6 Weeks), Indiscriminate Attachments (6 Weeks-7 Months), Specific Attachment (7-9 Months), Multiple Attachments (9-18 Months), Reciprocal Relationships (18+ Months).

Attachment Styles

Secure (65%), Insecure-Resistant (10%), Insecure-Avoidant (20%), Disorganized/Disoriented (5%).

Learning Theories of Attachment

Attachment forms through reinforcement (e.g., feeding satisfies hunger).

Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Attachment depends on cognitive milestones (e.g., object permanence).

Ethological Theory

Attachment behaviors (e.g., cuteness, crying) are biologically adaptive and encourage caregiver attention.

Mirror Test

Indicates self-recognition.

Emotion Regulation by 18-24 Months

Toddlers attempt to influence their environment (e.g., asking for comfort).

Social Smiles

Develop at 2-3 months.

Emotional Expressions Association at 7 Months

Begin associating emotional expressions with meaning (e.g., linking happy faces with happy voices).

Social Referencing Emergence

7-10 months: Infants use others' emotional expressions to interpret ambiguous situations.

Understanding Emotions at 18-24 Months

Begin to understand and discuss emotions, aiding empathy development.