Premodern Final Exam

Alcuin of York

Scholar who introduced Anglo-Saxon humanism to western Europe

Innocent III

Pope who expanded papal authority in the Catholic Church

John Wycliffe

English theologian who challenged the medieval church's salvation doctrine

Jan Hus

Advocate for vernacular Bible translations and critic of clergy immorality

John Calvin

Believed salvation was solely through God, not human actions

Ignatius Loyola

Spanish reformer who founded a new religious order blending humanism and Catholicism

Charlemagne

Frankish king who united most of Europe

William the Conqueror

Duke of Normandy who claimed part of England and introduced French language and culture 

Philip IV (of France)

Engaged in a struggle with the papacy and called the Estates General

Niccolò Machiavelli

Combined medieval and humanist political theories

Sir Thomas More

Lord Chancellor known for wisdom

Treaty of Verdun

Divided the Frankish Empire into three kingdoms

Hundred Years’ War

Destructive medieval conflict in Europe

Thirty Years’ War

Religious struggle for control over the Holy Roman Empire

Gregorian Reform

Reforms initiated by Pope Gregory

Investiture Controversy

Dispute over church and state roles in appointing officials

Great Schism

Split between Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches

Desiderius Erasmus

Translator of a new New Testament version

Martin Luther

Translated the Bible into accessible language for Christians

Council of Trent

Strengthened Catholic Church doctrines

Ferdinand and Isabella

Laid foundation for the Spanish Empire

Charles V

Powerful European monarch in 1519 who led France out of the first phase of the Hundred’s Year War

Philip II

Revealed strengths and weaknesses of the Spanish state

Louis XIV

Bourbon king of France who centralized power

Otto the Great

Emperor aspiring to dominate Italy and the papacy

Henry VIII

English king who separated from the Pope

Peter the Great

Russian emperor known for modernization

Leviathan

Concept that humans are naturally selfish

Humanism

Educational program based on ancient Greek and Roman literature

Neo-platonism

Philosophical movement following Plato's ideas

Nicolaus Copernicus

Proposed heliocentric solar system model

Johannes Kepler

Studied planetary motion with Tycho Brahe

Galileo Galilei

Showed planets were material, not just light

Francis Bacon

Advocate for the usefulness of science

René Descartes

Argued for science based on clear ideas

Medina

Sacred city where Islam was established by Mohammad

Magna Carta

the first document to put into writing the principle that the king and his government was not above the law

Babylonian Captivity

Period of Jewish captivity in Babylon

Peace of Augsburg

Settlement between Catholics and Protestants in Germany

English revolutions

Profound changes in the English monarchical system

Holy Roman Empire

Medieval confederation of European states