psychological problems

Unipolar depression

is a mood disorder causing periods of feeling sad and lack of motivation to do everyday tasks

symptoms

3L:
low mood (sad), low motivation (to do things), lack of energy (even after resting for long periods of time)

features

2W:
-WHO says 1 in 15 are likely to suffer from serious depression
- Women are more likely to have depression

Depression over time

• Seligmen et al- more ppl have been diagnosed with the depression bc more ppl know abt the symptoms

• Brandon Hidaka- more ppl have depression bc modern life is more stressfull

• Twenge et al- more teenagers have depression meaning their life is more stressfull

• Liu yi Lin et al- more social media use = high risk of depression

• King Fund- in 2026 1.45 mil ppl will be diagnosed with depression, compared to 1.24 in 2007

Depression in individuals and society

SMT

• Individuals = suicidal risk (feeling sad u want a way out= 10% commit it when depressed)

• Society = missed work time ( HSE reported around 10mil days of work lost bc of lack of motivation, sleep = cost company $$$\

• Treatment cost = 2007- 1.7 billion pounds spent by the NHS

Genetic Theory

• monozygotic twins = 100% of shared genes (identical)

• dizygotic twins - not identical twins (50%)

• Hyde et al - found 17 diff genes linked to depression

• Mc Guffin et al - if mz twin has depression = 46% chance of the other getting, while if dz twin has it = 20% the other one has it

Strength of genes explanation

• Lots of evidence- that some people have a pre disposition to ( be more likely to have) depression

• Capsi et Al- found ppl with genes linked to depression, reacted negatively to stressful situations, leading to depression

weakness for genes explanation

• Free will- some ppl believe that you have a free will and chose whether you get depression

• Reductionist- the genetic explanation doesn’t take into account other factors that may cause it

Cognitive theory - define

Thoughts influence behavior

Cognitive therapy (CT)

helps a person change a negative experience into a good one, to remove suffering

Negative Triad (Beck’s) - also what can it cause?

a set of 3 mindsets: thoughts about them selves, thoughts about the future, thoughts about the world (thet are all negative views)

• this neg way of thinking can lead to negative self schema + high risk of magnification (seeing problems as worse than they acc are)

Ellis ABC model

A - activating event (smt bad happens)
B- belief (rational (logical explanation) and irrational (illogical explanation)
C- consequence = positive emotional consequence ( no depression + feel motivated + study more for the next test) or negative emotional consequence

Strengths of the model

• CBT - cognitive therapy has been applied to a therapy called CBT and it is one of the leading treatments for depression

• Events matter - the model takes into account the importance of personal experiences/ events that could explain why someone is depressed

Weakness of the model

• Irrational thoughts- it is unclear if it is a cause or a symptom of depression, because ppl are only monitored after they’ve been diagnosed

• Biological factors- aren’t taken into account in the model

Cognitive behavioral therapy aim + how it works + sessions

• AIM- help patients change their way of thinking to change their behavior

• HOW IT WORKS- patients write down what makes them feel depressed and they practice more rational thinking

• SESSIONS- they attend sessions that challenge their irrational thoughts, if they think more rationally, they will feel better, which challenges the symptoms if depression

Strengths of CBT

• Beltman (2010) - found that ppl who tried CBT treatment improved more than ppl waiting for treatment

• Lasts longer- CBT lasts for a longer period than antidepressants, as ppl learn to control their thoughts and change negative ones into positive ones.

Weakness of CBT

• They need to want to change- otherwise CBT doesnt work

• They need to be motivated- bc if a patient doesn’t want to go to all CBT sessions and do hw, then the therapy will be innefective

Drugs as a treatment for depression - why? (2)

• Antidepressants raise the levels of seratonin and noradrenaline

• They make the effects of these neurotransmitters last longer

Neurotransmitters

chemical messages found in the nervous system that carry messages from one neuron to another across a synapse

Noradrenaline

type of neurotransmitter involved in the mood and released when stressed

Seratonin

a neurotransmitter linked with the mood

Ruptake

process which neurons absorb neurotransmitters

Types of antidepressants

• SSRI - prevents ruptake of seratonin so its effects last longer

• SNRI - prevents ruptake of both noradrenaline and seratonin so it’s effects last longer

• MAOI - prevents monoamine oxidase from doing it’s job, which makes more neurotransmitters (s and n) available

• TCA - boosts the effect of seratonin and noradrenaline by prevents its reabsorption by neurons

Strengths of drug therapy

• Improves symptoms - which mkes it easier to go to therapy, like CBT

• Placebo effect- 65% of ppl got better after taking antidepressants compared to only 30% that were given placebo

Weakness of drug therapy

• Long term effects- the long term effect of using drugs is worse and symptoms can come back

• Side effects - MAOI can have bad side effects when combined with certain foods, can lead to suicidal thoughts or diabetes

Addiction

is a psychological disorder where ppl feel the need to do or to have something in order to avoid a negative feeling

Withdrawl

these are unpleasant symptoms a person experiences when they are trying to quit or can’t satisfy their addiction

Symptoms of addiction ( Behavioral vs Substance )

BEHAVIOR:

• need to do the activity regularly

• difficult to reduce the activity

  SUBSTANCE:

• feeling that the person needs to take the substance

• reducing the use of the substance is hard

Features of addiction

highest addictions are opiates and alcohol

Genetic explanation for addiction

CDC

• Carmeli et al- founf that for mz twins, if one was addicted to smoking the other one was more likely to be addicted to, compared to dz twins

• Goodwin et al- found that if an adopted child had a biological parent addicted to alcohol then they were more likely to also be addicted

• Cadoret et al- found the same thing as Goodwin but also found that if their bio parent was also addicted then the chance was greater

Strength of genetic explanation for addiction

• Lots of evidence- twin and adoption studies

• Explains why some get it and others don’t - bc genes are different

Weakness of genetic explanation of addiction

• Gene- we haven’t found a gene that explains addiction

• Reductionist- the Cadoret study shows how enviromental factors can also influence if a person has addiction

Learning Theories and Addiction (COS)

• Classical conditioning - associating stimulus with positive or negative feeling

• Operant Conditioning - learning through consequences of actions, either punishment or reward, to stop or reinforce a behavior

• Social Learning Theory - learning a behavior by observing others (role model)

Strengths of leaning theories

• We can unlearn- if we get addicted by learning we can simply unlearn- hopefull

• Explains relapse- ppl relapse bc they get a good feeling

Weaknesses of learning theories

• Doesn’t explain why ppl become addicted- only few ppl become addicted while many try smoking/ drinking

• Biological factors- doesnt take into account the ‘feel good’ factor of some genes/ chemicals

CBT as treatment for addiction (stages)

• FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS - identifying the trigger for the addiction

  1. work out what makes them turn to addiction

  2. what feelings make them turn to addiction

  3. by identifying source they can learn to avoid it

• SKILLS TRAINING - after functional analysis patients need to learn how to avoid addictive behavior (eg: coping with cravings, assertiveness training - to learn to say no, improve motivation- so they keep going to therapy)

What happens during CBT sessions for addiction ?

during sessions they will keep a diary of important events to record their progress.

When they feel tempted they will write their feelings down and what they did

Strength of CBT for addiction

• Gives patient control- aims to give patient control to stop their addiction

• Kimbely et al.- in 2007 found that CBT helped treating internet addiction

Weaknesses of CBT for addiction

• No motivation- causes CBT not to work, bc it requires effort from patient

• Doesn’t guarantee they will stop- even if they learn the skills to cope with it

5 ways drugs help addicts

1. Detoxification

2. Withdrawal problems

3. Reducing cravings

4. treating mental health problems

5. Treating behavioral addiction