Politics of the Late Republic Secondary Sources

Scullard / Cicero as a novus homo

Because he was a novus homo, who lacked the political or military clientela to build a strong faction for political leadership.

Brunt / Cicero as a novus homo

The reluctant goodwill of the optimates, which Cicero relied on, allowed him to become the first plebeian consul for 30 years.

Brunt / Avarice and discontent

Ambitious men like Sulla and Caesar saw how the avarice of the ruling class created discontent amongst the masses, and framed their campaigns as wrecking the established order.

Beard / Cicero's decline

63 BC was the peak of Cicero's career, before a 20 year fall from grace to failure, ending with his head hung up in Rome.

Tempest / Cicero's relationship w/ Caesar

Cicero didn't hate the man, but hated his refusal to restore the republic

Tempest / Cicero's pragmatic approach to Antony

War and extra-legal measures were the only way to save Rome from Antony's grasp

Morello / Cicero's letters

While his letters differ in style and tone they all focus on the addressee's persona

Vasaly / Cicero's oratory

The aim of Cicero's oratory was to preserve the Roman state in its best form by playing on the audience's emotions.

Beard / Impacts of In Verrem

By overcoming the established lawyer order, Cicero launched his career to a new level.

Beard / Verres' crimes

For Cicero, the hallmark of Verres' behaviour was a grotesque combination of cruelty and lust for women, cash, and art.

Beard / Modern perspective on In Verrem

It is impossible to judge Verres' court case when only one side's arguments survive

Mitchell / Cicero's presentation in In Verrem?

Cicero did not present himself as part of a political faction, but rather a bastion of patriotism looking to impress the public by serving the state and bringing justice.

Warner / Plutarch's life of Caesar

Plutarch insidiously assumes that Caesar's financially-driven desperation and ambition from the outset of his career meant he always intended to overthrow the Republic

Scullard / Cause of the Civil War

Neither Caesar, nor Pompey, nor the bulk of Italy wanted war. It was the Optimate clique who forced it by voting down disarmament.

Shotter / Caesar's view on the republic

When Caesar referred to the republic as "a mere name, without form or substance", Caesar may have meant not that the republic should be destroyed, but that its institutions should change with the times.

Shotter / Caesar's conspirators

Their mixed Civil war allegiance show how by trying to appease everyone, Caesar failed to please anyone.

Beard / One-man rule

One-man rule was the new precedent by the time of Caesar's assassination

Beard / Pompey v Caesar

The Civil was not liberty v autocracy, it was a battle between rival emperors

Brunt / Cato's motive

Cato was one of the only politicians with "purity of motive" (no personal ambition)

Brunt / Cato's status

Cato's ruthless character made him the most influential Optimate leader.

Brunt / Cato's rare pragmatism

Cato was willing to undertake a populares policy like cheap grain distributions to prevent disorder following the Catiline executions

Blood / Why did Cato fail to win power?

The common people were exasperated at Cato's refusal to be swayed, even by bribery, and this outweighed any admiration for his moral integrity

Scullard / Cato's death

Cato's suicide symbolised the death of the republic, and the liberty and stoic values Cato represented.

Beard / Cato's relationship with Caesar

Cato was one of Caesar's most uncompromising enemies

Beard / Why did Cato commit suicide?

By committing suicide, Cato preserved his libertas instead of being at the whim of a 'king'.

Scullard / First Triumvirate

The First Triumvirate was the ultimate origin of the Civil War in 49

Paterson / Winning Power

Personalities counted more than policies.

Paterson / Self-preservation

In times of turmoil, all the protagonists mainly aimed to defend the wealth and influence they had accumulated.

Paterson / "Spirit of Compromise"

The Spirit of Compromise, adhered to by the likes of Cicero, aimed to defuse resentment and prevent a repeat of Sulla's Civil War by taking only reluctant stands against the tides of public opinion (like the First Triumvirate)

Paterson / Political rivalries

The nature of the cursus honorum forced ambitious young aristocrats to look upon their contemporaries as rivals not allies

Paterson / Winning public support

Winning over the people was essential for success, you could not rely on nobility alone, the best way to win was thus through games and gifts

Paterson / Cicero's description of Populares

Cicero's definiton of a popularis was any ambitious politician with 'criminal' or 'revolutionary' policies (i.e. any policies to help ordinary people)

Paterson / Cicero's self-interest

When Cicero lended his support to a political issue, it was usually calculated rather than on principle, and often was done to impress his idol Pompey.