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discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
achievement motivation
a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard
general adaption syndrome (GAS)
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
tend-and-befirend response
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)
direct effects hypothesis
the theory that coping resources, such as social support, have beneficial psychological and health effects under conditions of both high stress and low stress
tyranny of choice
brings information overload and a greater likelihood that we will feel regret over some of the unchosen options
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.
explanatory style
a person's habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along three dimensions: internal/external, stable/unstable, and global/specific
normative social influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval
social facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others
social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable
Deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
diffusion of responsibility
the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way
groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
prejudice
preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience
gender prejudice
the tendency to hold a hostile attitude toward an individual because of his or her gender
DSM-5
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.
nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)
direct, deliberate destruction of body tissue in the absence of any intent to die
immigrant paradox
the fact that despite living in poverty, going to substandard schools, and not having parents who speak the language, many immigrant children do far better than we might expect at school
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
instinct
a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned
homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level
incentives
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
1. physiological
2. safety
3. love/belonging
4. esteem
5. self-actualization
Yerkes-Dodson Law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases
self-transcendence
according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self
affiliation
An association with a group or organization
social identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
narcissism
excessive self-love and self-absorption
grit
passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
James-Lange theory of emotion
theory proposing that emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli
Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion
theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time
Schachter-Singer 2 Factor Theory of Emotion
A two-factor theory stating that for an emotion to occur, there must be (1) physiological arousal and (2) a cognitive interpretation or explanation of the arousal, allowing it to be labeled as a specific emotion.
relationship between cognition and emotion
- Arousal fuels emotion, cognition channels it
- Some theories say that there's no cognition involved in experiencing emotion, some say there is
catharsis
a release of emotional tension
feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
subjective well-being
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.
pillars of positive psychology
1. positive well-being
2. positive character
3. positive groups, communities, and cultures
Which days of the week are the happiest according to Kramer
saturdays and sundays
adaption-level phenomenon
our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience
relative deprivation
the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself
factors predicting happiness
positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, achievement
stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
stressor
Anything that causes stress
approach and avoidance motives
the drive to move toward (approach) or away from (avoid) a stimulus
psychoneuroimmunology
the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health
type a personality
personality type that describes people who are competitive, driven, hostile, and ambitious
type b personality
Personality characterized by relatively relaxed, patient, easygoing, amicable behavior.
indirect effect hypothesis
Immunosuppression is an aftereffect of the stress response
Stress may encourage maladaptive behaviors that disrupt immune functioning
transactional model
A model that emphasizes the bidirectional effects of parents and adolescents on each other.
problem-focused coping
Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.
emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction
maladaptive coping
Strategies that cause further problems
percieved lack of control
makes an event more stressful
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate
difference between stress and anxiety
Stress is a response to a threat in a situation. Anxiety is a reaction to the stress.
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
attitudes
evaluations of people, objects, and ideas
cognitive dissonance
Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions
peripheral routes of persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness
central routes of persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
social cognation
the feeling and behaviors that seem to spread among people. when at a funeral and you begin to laugh about something of a story you remember with them, you then become contagious to others and they begin to tell their stories of what made them laugh together.
conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
informational social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality
group polarization
the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group
stereotyping
creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike
fundamental attribution error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
implicit prejudice
unfounded negative belief of which we're unaware regarding the characteristics of an out-group
just world phenomenon
the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
outgroup bias
tendency to focus on negative aspects of other people's groups
scapegoat theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame
victim-blaming
placing the responsibility or blame for a bad outcome on the individual who experiences the bad outcome due to his or her behavior
Philippe Pinel
French physician who worked to reform the treatment of people with mental disorder
biopsychosocial approach to mental illness
biological influences on it, psychological, socio influences
characteristics of panic disorder
Recurrent panic attacks
Feelings of intense fear or terror and impending doom
Symptoms come on unexpectedly without triggers
Depression and agoraphobia are common
Average onset in late 20s
Frequency and severity vary
characteristics of OCD
Perform rituals over and over again, fearful of dirt or contamination, concern about order/exactness, persistent intrusive thoughts that can't be shaken,
characteristics of PTSD
intrusion, avoidance, hyperarousal
somatic symptom disorder
psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause
major depressive disorder
A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities.
major depressive disorder
A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities.
mania
a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state
biological influences on depression
genetic predispositions, changes in brain chemistry, brain damage due to stress and other factors
social-cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
"vicious cycle" of depression
Depression can lead to behaviors that cause social rejection, which worsens depression
