PRATICAL 2

Lymph

Clear fluid, transports immune cells, waste products.

Lymphatic Vessels

One-way vessels with valves, carry lymph from tissues to lymph nodes

Lymph Nodes

 Filter lymph, house immune cells (B and T cells).

Thymus

T cell maturation.

Bone Marrow

B cell maturation

Lymph Nodes

Immune response activation (inguinal, axillary, cervical, etc.).

Tonsils

Trap pathogens (palatine, lingual, pharyngeal, tubal).

Peyer’s Patches

Mucosal immune surveillance in the small intestine.

Spleen

Filters blood, immune response activation.

Appendix

Lymphatic tissue, immune function.

Lymphatic Circulation Flow

• Arteries → Interstitial fluid → Lymphatic capillaries → Lymph vessels → Lymph trunks → Lymph ducts → Veins (subclavian).

Physical barriers

Skin, mucosal layers.

Chemical barriers

 Stomach acid, lysozyme.

Inflammatory response

Mast cells, neutrophils, macrophages, NK cells.

Cell-Mediated

 T cells.

Humoral

B cells, antibodies.

Cisterna chyli

Collects lymph from lower body, important for lymphatic circulation.

Immunological Memory

Primary and secondary immune responses.

Pulmonary Ventilation
, Inhalation

Diaphragm contracts, lung volume increases.

Pulmonary Ventilation, Exhalation

 Diaphragm relaxes, lung volume decreases.

Pulmonary Gas Exchange

Oxygen into blood, CO2 out.

Tissue Gas Exchange

 Oxygen out of blood, CO2 into blood.

Upper Respiratory System

 Nose, pharynx, larynx.

Lower Respiratory System

Trachea, bronchi, lungs.

Nose

Filters, humidifies, and warms air.

Pharynx

Passageway for air and food.

Larynx

Voice production, protects airway.

Trachea

 Airway, cartilaginous rings.

Epiglottis

Prevents food from entering airway.

Alveoli

Gas exchange.

Respiratory Bronchioles, Alveolar Ducts, Alveolar Sacs

 Direct gas exchange.

Right Lung

3 lobes

Left Lung

2 lobes, cardiac notch.

Fissures

Horizontal (right lung), Oblique (both lungs).

Inspiration

Diaphragm contracts, pressure drops in lungs.

Expiration

Diaphragm relaxes, pressure increases in lungs.

Tidal Volume (TV)

Normal breathing.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

Extra air inhaled.

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

 Extra air exhaled.

Residual Volume (RV)

Air left in lungs after exhalation.

Vital Capacity (VC)

 Maximum air exhaled after maximum inhalation.

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

Total air the lungs can hold.