Psychology Terms & Definitions for UCI Bio Sci 38 Final

Identify innate rules, assumptions and shortcuts of perception which explain visual illusions.

Your brain creates the contours of objects. The context of the visual scene influences perception. (optical illusions)

Provide an example of how perception affects neuroplasticity

Phantom limbs: Caused by neuroplasticity (cortical reorganization) in somatosensory cortex (SC), neighboring neurons in the SC invade the area coding for the amputated limb, phantom sensations and pain

Provide an example of how memory affects perception

Your brain "fills in" a lot of your perceptions using your memories. (picture of dog, 13 or B)

Provide an example of how perception and memory share neural correlates

Visual agnosia: loss of visual perception, can't see object as whole but can identify object or can represent object but not interpret/understand

Memory

1.An enduring change in behavior that results from the individual's experience.

2.The retention over time of learned information.

3.The retention over time of experience dependent internal representations.

Percept

A short-lasting internal representation of a sensory stimulus. Glimpses of the sensory world captured by the brain in real-time.

Homunculus in the somatosensory cortex

How our body is represented in the brain

Inferior Temporal Cortex

Where visual perception meets memory, loss of visual perception (visual agnosia) when ITC lost

What do these illusions tell us about how the brain works?

A: Our perceptions are not always accurately representing the world we experience.

B: The context of a visual scene can influence our perception.

C: Our brain is actively involved in perception, not passively processing it.

D: Our sensory systems are using specific rules, shortcuts and assumptions to quickly process sensory information.

E: All of the above

E

Which of the following correctly characterizes the relationship between perception and memory?

A: They are completely independent processes.

B: They have a unidirectional relationship: What we perceive determines what we remember, but our memories do not influence our perceptions.

C: Both are dependent on our brain "filling in" missing details.

D: They have a unidirectional relationship: What we remember determines what we perceive, but our perceptions do not influence our memory.

C

Where is the memory?

No clear distinctions when it comes to the brain

Cortical plasticity

present during development, responds to conditioning, always reorganizing without explicit training

Neurons in high-level visual areas (IT) have complex "receptive fields"

Cells have complex receptive fields that will only recognize certain things, fire more when it sees what it's supposed to

Neurons in high-level visual areas (IT) show associative memory

Find a bunch of images that cause a certain neuron to fire then train the neuron to fire for different images that are paired with it, can also train it to know an image it finds important is coming up

Gray matter volume

differences in motor cortex (professional > amateur > non-musicians), can increase when learning braille; by increasing gray matter, the connections also increase

Is it meaningful to ask how many brain systems are there?*

There are no strict systems, we don't have a line between one system and another

The data on cortical plasticity so far show that:

A: Cortical plasticity is limited to happening during development

B: Cortical plasticity is limited to higher-level sensory regions

C: Cortical plasticity requires the hippocampus and MTL

D: None of the Above

D

Suppose I took a group of people who had never played the piano before and gave them lessons and had them practice for several months, what changes might I expect to see in MRI scans taken before and after this training?

A: No changes

B: No changes in brain volume, but changes in functional MRI activity in primary cortical motor regions responsible for the left and right hands

C: Increased gray matter volume in primary cortical motor regions responsible for the left and right hands and perhaps changes in connectivity with these regions

D: Alterations in the hippocampus associated with how well they have progressed in their training

C

Compare attention needed for analyzing the meaning of a message versus analyzing whether the speaker is male or female.

Analyzing the meaning of a message requires more attention than analyzing whether the speaker is male or female.

Determine how diverting our attention to multiple tasks affects our ability to carry out tasks.

Our total capacity is limited, when we divert our attention to multiple tasks, our ability to carry out either of the tasks is slightly impaired

Describe how change blindness and selective attention relate to one another.

Change blindness is a result of selective attention

Apply knowledge of limited capacity of attention to predict outcomes in everyday life.

Although we have the impression that we can absorb the world with great detail and accuracy, we actually only see and remember a small proportion of our sensory input

Change blindness

the failure to notice surprisingly large change from one moment to the next

Selective attention

the process of directing our awareness to relevant stimuli while ignoring irrelevant stimuli, it allows us to select some aspect of our world to be seen and others to be ignored or filtered out of awareness

Role of Attention in Perception and Memory

Allocation of attention by brain will be driven by previous knowledge of how the world works (ie. your memories) and what you are thinking at the time

Do we have control over our attention?

We have considerable control over how we allocate attention, we can chose to analyze a stimulus fully or partially.

Does a more narrow attention help us focus on more details?

More information is absorbed when a smaller subset of stimuli receives attention

ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder)

have impaired working memory, especially spatial storage and spatial central executive (CE) working memory components, only modest deficits in verbal storage and verbal CE WM components

Attention

a limited mental resource needed for processing information prior to memory storage

Which statement is true about the experiment which deciphers the limits of our attention and the effects of multi-tasking?

A: The difference between the two group conditions is that the one group needs to distinguish the lists based solely on content (rather than using tips like what type of voice said it).

B: A longer response time indicates the group is more proficient at the task.

C: A higher error rate indicates the group is more proficient at multi-tasking.

D: When we divert our attention to multiple tasks, our ability to carry out one task is hindered while the ability to carry out the other task is enhanced.

E: With enough training, we have an unlimited capacity for attention.

A

Which statement(s) is/are true about change blindness, selective attention, and how they relate to one another?

A: Change blindness is the ability to adapt to multiple environments.

B: Change blindness is the failure to notice surprisingly large change from moment to the next.

C: Selective attention is the process of enhancing awareness while maintaining awareness in all sensory space.

D: Change blindness results in selective attention.

E: B and C

B

Prefrontal cortex (PFC)

Composed of several distinct subdivisions, each with different connection profiles, strongly connected with many other areas of the brain, oversee and regulate behavioral responses initiated by the more "primitive" limbic structures, Takes the longest time to fully develop (~ age 25)

Describe how prefrontal cortical size differs in different animals.

Phenomenal expansion of PFC volume in primates, especially humans, large percentage of brain dedicated to PFC in humans, less in other animals

Dorsolateral PFC

with damage show: personality changes (e.g. flat affect, indifference), high susceptibility to incidental distractions, impaired ability to initiate, terminate, or change behavior, impaired "executive functions"

Orbitofrontal PFC

with damage show: behavioral and emotional disinhibition, rarely emotional neutral, cannot inhibit urge for instant gratification, no foresight for consequences, antisocial, criminal behavior

Describe an experiment which showed the dorsolateral PFC is important for working memory.

1. food is placed in randomly selected well visible to monkey

2. screen is lowered and food covered for a standard time

3. screen is raised and monkey uncovers well containing food

more activitty in dorsolateral PFC when stimulus (food) is presented

Describe how amygdala-PFC connections alter fear learning.

Connections are designed to amplify the fear signal, Training: Pair cue to shock, where there are reciprocal connections between the PFC and amygdala, we observe increased PFC activity and amplified fear response in fear learning

Identify at what stage is the PFC involved in motor learning.

involved in initial motor skill learning, well-practiced skills can be carried out in a highly automatic way, require very little attention and awareness (driving)

Where have you heard of the PFC before in this class?

Lobotomies (popularized by Moniz and Freeman) sever the connection between the PFC and the rest of the brain

A suspected serial killer is on trial for a series of heinous murders. He was also famous for fits of rage during the trial. His lawyer makes the arguments that none of this is his fault because he (allegedly) suffered damage to:

A: the hippocampus

B: the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex

C: the orbitofrontal cortex

D: the sympathy lobe

C

Teenagers:

A: consistently show enhanced decision-making abilities compared to adults.

B: cannot prevent risk because they are still engaged in motor skill learning.

C: can understand that particular actions are risky, but may still engage in them.

D: have a fully mature brain by the time they reach age 15.

C

Inaccurate but common view of memory

People often think of memory as a kind of camera, snapshot of episodic memory, you can't just retrieve a bunch of info back that you initially stored in, your brain changes, your memory never had some details in the first place

Better view of memory

Memory lets us use experiences to adapt and have better behaviors or make better choices, you have a limited capacity, attend to few details, and your memory held only the gist which was driven by your prior knowledge and expectations, memory is construction based on a few details and your prior beliefs

False memories

Happen automatically (re-telling), eyewitness testimony is altered by how the question is asked, misinformation after the fact can distort memories, even strong memories become more generalized and less detailed over time, high rates even after high-stress, realistic events

Reconsolidation

Retrieving a memory makes it labile and open to updating (alteration or elimination), should be good but can lead to false memories

Prior knowledge

What you think should happen intrudes into our memory (own race is identified more accurately)

Implicit bias

Can be clear despite no (or reverse) explicit bias, stereotyping,

Neocortex

Gradual learning leads to "semanticized" (gist) memories based on multiple similar events and multiple replays of those events. Over time, the memory will become less verdical

Hippocampus

Rapidly stores a bit from any given episode

experience-derived memory

Source of "knowledge" and its evil twin, "implicit bias, " rapid associative learning that is supported by the hippocampus is based on information in the neocortex (and thereby open to implicit bias)

If someone is aware of his or her explicit bias, can they make unbiased decisions?

A: No - being aware of your explicit bias means nothing. Your implicit bias will drive your behavior.

B: Somewhat - being aware of your explicit bias might reduce the effects of implicit bias, but the implicit bias effects will still be there.

C: Yes - so long as you're aware of your explicit biases, you can make unbiased decisions and act accordingly

B

Brain changes as we age

Brain structures tied to memory shrink as we leave our 30's, memory loss occurs with increasing age, but not all kinds (fine on: skill and habit memory, vocabulary, gist/familiarity/basic recognition memory, working memory maintenance)

Area 46 of the prefrontal cortex

Critical role in executive function and working memory, of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, most widely studied in rhesus monkeys

Synaptic and spine loss

In area 46 there is a 30% decrease in synaptic density, similar loss in dendritic spines averaging 33%, declines are strongly correlated with scores on working memory tasks

Why do you think memory changes as we age?

Not neuronal loss, but rather connections are changing, total number of neurons stay the same

Problems with source memory

Subtle problems with hippocampus, not losing basic recognition memor, problem in the details

So we're losing neurons in the hippocampus, right?

Nope, aged impaired rats have smaller, less effective synapses in the perforant path (quality, not quantity), aging (in rats) leads to alterations in connectivity in the hippocampal circuit (and may be why details are lost)

Mnemonic Similarity Task (MST)

Target specifically the hippocampus, tests the details, measures recognition memory (gist or low-fidelity memory) and Lure Discrimination Index (LDI) (details or high-fidelity), (ex. different but similar pics)

Mnemonic discrimination

Selectively impaired by damage to the hippocampus, gradual progression or shift towards less separation with age

White matter integrity

Declines with age, Changes with connectivity between regions of the rain, FA measure of how tight a bundle your diffusion is

Perforant path

Main path into hippocampus, goes from hippocampus to entorhinal cortex, degrades with age, correlates with mnemonic discrimination

Aging (outside of dementia)

Leads to a reduced ability to remember details and a reliance on gist (lower fidelity of memories), comes at least in part from reduced hippocampal connectivity such that the action of the hippocampus is impaired

Svetlana is a 70 year-old woman without any signs of dementia. Suppose I gave her a list of words with some printed in red ink and some in blue ink. After a 15 minute delay, I test her memory for what she saw. When comparing this to typical "young, healthy" performance, what would I expect to see?

A: Problems remembering that a list of words was shown

B: Problems recognizing which words were shown using yes/no recognition

C: Problems remembering which color each word was shown in

D: B & C

E: All of the above

C

If the age-related neurobiological changes we saw in the rats hold in humans, what is a good hypothesis that would account for the age-related memory problems in humans just covered?

A: The people showing age-related memory loss are suffering from early stages of dementia

B: The age-related memory loss stems from loss of hippocampal neurons

C: The age-related memory loss stems from disruption of connectivity or circuitry in the hippocampus

D: B&C

C

Dementia

Impairment in: memory, at least one other cognitive domain, social or occupational functioning, gradual onset and continual decline

Vascular Dementia (VaD)

Widespread damage from "mini strokes," caused by blockages in the brain's blood supply leading to widespread, diffuse damage and cognitive loss, may cause or exacerbate Alzheimer's

Frontotemporal Dementia (FTD)

Frontal and temporal damage, no amnesia in the early stages, clinical syndrome associated with shrinkage of the frontal and temporal lobes, impulsive or bored and listless, inappropriate social behaviors, neglect of personal hygiene, repetitive or compulsive behavior, speech problems, semantic deficits

Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB)

Abnormal protein aggregations, presence of Lewy Bodies (alpha-synuclein neuronal inclusion bodies), similar to AD, includes: bradykinesia (slow motion) & rigidity (similar to Parkinson's), recurrent and well-formed hallucinations, Memory deficits less severe than AD but visuospatial deficits are more severe than AD

AD Cognitive Profile

Early Changes: Episodic Memory Executive function, working memory and attention, Language and semantic knowledge; Later Changes: Visuospatial deficits, Decline across all cognitive domains

Aβ Plaques and Tau tangles

Risk factors for AD

Age is the #1 risk factor past 65, Genetic: known genetic basis but mostly for early-onset AD (familial AD) and not sporadic, ApoE4is the only clearly and reliably identified risk factor, smoking, stroke, lower edu., etc.

Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)

Prodromal Alzheimer's(?), an individual's report of his or her own memory problems, preferably confirmed by another person, an evolving definition

Prevention of AD?

No clear evidence for prevention, Best bets: cognitive (mentally stimulating) and social activities along with physical exercise (or have the right genes), high educational level and occupational attainment (high cognitive reserve)

Anti-Amyloid Treatment in Asymptomatic AD (A4 Trial)

Prevention trial, targeting older adults with biomarkers for AD (e.g. amyloid) but no symptoms of AD using an anti-amyloid agent to see if clearing amyloid prevents AD onset

Treatment for Alzheimer's Disease

No cure, only symptomatic relief and for a short period of time, dementia is progressive, Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors: Increase amounts of acetylcholine in synapses by inhibiting its breakdown, NMDA receptor antagonist: reduces glutamate excitotoxicity

Ginko biloba

Has been shown in a large randomized clinical trial to not impact progression to dementia, but has safety concerns

Here is an MRI scan of an elderly person suffering from some kind of cognitive impairment. Based on the MRI scan, what would your best guess be about the diagnosis?

A: Typical age-related memory decline

B: Vascular dementia

C: Alzheimer's disease

D: Fronto-temporal dementia

E: Lewy-body dementia

B

What is the most effective, disease-modifying compound (drug or supplement) used to treat Alzheimer's Disease?

A: Donepezil (Aricept)

B: Memantine

C: Coenzyme Q (CoQ) or idebenone

D: Ginko biloba

E: There are no disease-modifying treatments for AD

E

Savant syndrome

unknown biological basis and incredible performance in a limited domain, some cases originate from neural developmental "disorders" and others from injury

Mnemonics

learning techniques that aid memory retention, lots of practice, dates back centuries (Cicero, 55 BCE)

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory

Autobiographical experts with obsessional personalities directed towards their memories, super good at but limited to autobiographical memory, they don't learn more they just don't forget (forget slower), specific to the recall of personally-relevant autobiographical information, have characteristics of obsessional personalities, obsessed with not forgetting

Kenya is a 14 year-old who just read Moonwalking with Einstein. If she tries to do the same things the author did and trains her memory to compete in memory championships like he did, will she get better at things like memorizing history dates and biology terms?

A: Yes, her memory capacity will improve overall allowing her to memorize anything easily

B: Yes, but only if she adapts the techniques to the kinds of material she's trying to learn

C: No. You're either born with that memory talent or you're not.

B

I have three decks of cards that are all randomly shuffled. I hand one to an HSAM (like Jill, Louise, or Marilu), one to Joshua Foer (Moonwalking with Einstein / memory champ) and one to a regular schmo (you) and give you all 2 minutes to try to memorize it. How well do you all do?

A: (HSAM = Memory Champ) > You

B: HSAM > Memory Champ > You

C: Memory Champ > You > HSAM

D: Memory Champ > (HSAM ~= You)

D

Bloom's Taxonomy

Improving memory

Repetition, spacing your repetitions, reconsolidation, testing, thinking about information more "deeply," sleep helps consolidate, not diverting our attention to multiple tasks, don't generalize, engaging activity