Chap 5; Recent Sociological Approaches to Crime

what is the general theory of crime?

Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990).

Crime:

•Rational and predictable

Criminal Offenders:

•Individuals predisposed to crime – this is constant throughout life

•Low self-control, impulsive, self-centered, active, physical, adventuresome

•Level of self-control depends on quality of parenting received in child’s formative years.

what is crime opportunity?

strong predictor of fraud and aggression as was low self esteem

what are some criticisms of the general theory of crime?

•mixed results when put to empirical testing.

•Tautological – circular reasoning...low-self control=juvenile delinquent

•not that successful in predicting serious forms of violence

•Doesn’t suggest that they will stay delinquents forever

what does the life course perspective say about crime and victimization

Crime:

•Problem behaviours are age-related, not constant

•Crime increases during adolescence and early adulthood, then declines.

•Life course data has demonstrated that men who desist from crime were rooted to strong social ties with family and community.

•Focus on turning points: employment, marriage, close-call. Some things happen therefore they no longer want to risk it

Victimization (Macmillan, 2000):

•being victimized by crime affects adult income...

•timing of victimization is important

trauma…

burdens success

what are some criticisms of the life course perspective?

•More life course research needed re: females.

•Tanner and colleagues (1999):

•Effects of delinquency on employment status in adulthood were more pronounced for males than for females.

what is the general strain theory?

Agnew:

•Agreed with Merton that strain can incite criminal behaviour

•Suggested there are several types of strain that can lead to criminal behaviour:

1. inability to achieve positively valued goals(macro)

2. removal or the threat to remove positively valued stimuli (micro)

3. actual or anticipated negative or harmful stimuli (micro)

criticism on the general strain theory?

•How do we measure strain?

differences in types of strain

females

• concerned with creating and maintaining close bonds and relationships with others, thus lower rates of property and violent crimes

• faces negative treatment, such as discrimination, high demands from family, and restricted behaviour

• failure to achieve goals may lead to self-destructive behaviour

Males

• concerned with material success, thus higher rates of property and violent crimes

• faces more conflict with peers and are more likely to be victims of crime

• failure to achieve goals may lead to property and violent crime

gender differences win emotional response to strain

females

• more likely to respond with depression and anger

• anger is accompanied by fear, guilt, and shame

• more likely to blame themselves and worry about the effects of their anger

• depression and guilt mailed to self-destructive behaviours (eating disorders)

males

• more likely to respond with anger

• anger is followed by moral outrage

• quick to blame others and are less concerned about hurting others

• moral outrage may lead to property nd violent crime

rational choice theory

Criminals are rational actors

• Human behaviour = the result of conscious decision-making.

• “Expected utility” principle: Crime is calculated and deliberate.

• Crime is influenced by variations in:

  • opportunity, environment, target, risk of detection

what is the criticism of the rational choice theory?

• Is everyone capable of making a rational decision?

• Better at explaining “instrumental” rather than “expressive” crimes

what is the routine activity theory

Crime is likely to occur when:

•a motivated offender

•suitable victim

•in an environment that does not provide protection to the potential victim

General increase in youth crime is the result of:

•changes in education, work, technology

•rise in the number of temptations

•decline in parental controls

criticism of the routine activity theory

• Opportunities to commit crime do not necessarily lead to crime even when controls are absent.

• What about crime displacement?

what does the crime prevention through environmental design wish to accomplish?

• First introduced by Jeffery in 1971

• “Defensible space”

1. Natural surveillance

2. Natural access control

3. Territorial reinforcement

4. Maintenance

what are the principles of the CPTED

defensible space, access control, territoriality, surveillance, target hardening, image, and activity support.

what is territorial reinforcement?

the use of physical attributes to delineate space and express a positive sense of ownership.

what are some crime prevention designs

• Housing units can be designed so as to allow neighbors to "self-patrol" their environments.

• Lighting and landscaping may be enhanced in parking lots to improve visibility and feelings of safety.

• Fences around housing developments can be designed in ways that avoid creating hiding places for criminals.

what are some criticisms of CPTED

• Other crime prevention strategies are overlooked

• “Good citizens” versus “bad offenders” stereotypes

• not based on an accurate risk assessment

• “Responsibilization” of clients to become willing participants

what is risk and actuarial criminology?

• Focus on understanding emerging forms of social control.

• Power is now localized in a wide array of institutions each of which has specialized techniques for discipline.

• Corrections, risk, and actuarial analyses focus on risk management, recognizing the system is incapable of rehabilitating offenders.

what are some criticisms of the risk and actuarial criminology?

• Comprehension of the language used in this theory is problematic and is accessible to a relatively small group of  experts in the area.