Independence Movements (Ch.1-3)

Mercantilism

The belief that economic self-sufficiency is the key to national wealth and power.

Enlightenment

a transformative European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, individualism, and the questioning of traditional authority to promote liberty, progress, and knowledge

Seven Years War/French-Indian Wa

a conflict between Great Britain and France for North American territory that extended into Europe, Africa, and Asia. The war, fought over control of the Ohio River Valley, ended with a British victory, but the resulting debt and new colonial policies angered American colonists

Treaty of Paris 1763

officially ended the French and Indian War (also known as the Seven Years' War) between Great Britain and France

Whigs/Tories

Whigs Members of the Whig Party, which usually upheld popular rights and opposed royal power.

Tories Members of the Tory Party, which usually opposed change

Pontiac’s Rebellion

Pontiac's Rebellion (1763-1766) was an armed conflict where Ottawa chief Pontiac led a large, pan-Indian alliance against British rule and colonial expansion in the Great Lakes region and Ohio Country following the French and Indian War

Proclamation of 1763

issued by King George III, was a British decree that prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to manage newly acquired territory after the French and Indian War

George Grenville

George Grenville was a British Prime Minister (1763-1765) who is important because he implemented policies that significantly raised taxes on the American colonies to help pay off Britain's debt from the Seven Years' War. His implementation of the Stamp Act and Sugar Act led to fierce colonial resistance under the banner of "no taxation without representation" and are considered a major catalyst for the American Revolution.  

Sugar Act of 1764

The Sugar Act of 1764 was a British law that placed taxes on goods like sugar, wine, coffee, and molasses, and also enforced stricter customs regulations and trials

Stamp Act

a 1765 British tax on colonists that required them to pay for a government stamp on various documents, including newspapers, legal papers, and playing cards

Stamp Act Congress

a colonial gathering of representatives from nine colonies that met in New York City to draft a unified response and petition against the British Stamp Act

Sons of Liberty

a political and patriotic group formed in 1765 to oppose British taxation policies and the infringement on American liberties, most notably the Stamp Act

 Declaratory Act – 1766

a British parliamentary act passed the same day as the repeal of the unpopular Stamp Act, asserting that Parliament had full authority to make laws binding the colonies in all cases whatsoever

Townshend Acts – 1767

a series of laws passed by the British Parliament in 1767, named after Charles Townshend, which imposed duties (taxes) on imported goods such as glass, lead, paint, paper, and tea into the American colonies

William Pitt

William Pitt the Elder, a British statesman who was instrumental in securing British victories in the French and Indian War by shifting British efforts to capturing Canada, which effectively removed French power from North America and laid the groundwork for British dominance. He is known for his aggressive strategies, increased funding for the military, and a belief in fairer colonial policies, although his successors pursued more restrictive measures

John Dickinson 

In US history, John Dickinson was an American Founding Father, known as the "penman of the Revolution" for his influential writings such as the Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania and for co-authoring the Articles of Confederation. A statesman from Delaware, he advocated for colonial rights but was a reluctant supporter of independence, embodying a moderate viewpoint that influenced the early American Revolution and the drafting of the Constitution

Boston Massacre–1770

a deadly confrontation on March 5, 1770, where British soldiers fired into a crowd of Boston colonists, killing five people and wounding others

Committees of Correspondence 

organizations formed to create a communication network between Patriot leaders and citizens across the Thirteen Colonies to coordinate opposition to British policies and promote the cause of American independence

Tea Act –1773

a British Parliament law that gave the financially struggling East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the American colonies and allowed it to bypass certain taxes and sell tea directly to consumers

Boston Tea Party –1773

The Boston Tea Party was a political protest on December 16, 1773, when American colonists dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor to protest the British Tea Act and the concept of taxation without representation

Coercive Acts/Intolerable Acts–1774

a series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party. The acts closed the Boston Port, stripped Massachusetts of its self-government, allowed British officials to be tried elsewhere, and permitted British soldiers to be quartered in colonial homes.

Quebec Act–1774

The Quebec Act of 1774 was a British statute that extended Quebec's territory south to the Ohio River, restored French civil law, and allowed Catholics to hold office, but it was viewed by American colonists as an "Intolerable Act" that threatened their liberties and land claims

Continental Congress.

The Continental Congress was the governing body that united the American colonies to resist British rule and establish a new nation during the American Revolution

Lord North

Lord North was the British Prime Minister who oversaw Great Britain's policies during the American Revolution, leading to his resignation in 1782 after the decisive British defeat at the Battle of Yorktown. His administration's response to colonial resistance, particularly the Coercive Acts, escalated tensions and led to the outbreak of war. He was remembered as the minister who lost the American colonies, though his expertise lay in finance and economics, not military command.  

Lexington and Concord– April 1775

The Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, marked the start of the American Revolutionary War

Creoles

people of mixed European, African, and/or Indigenous ancestry native to Louisiana, regardless of race, who shared a distinct culture

Peninsulares

Spanish-born individuals who held the highest social, political, and economic status in the colonies

mestizo

"mestizo" refers to a person of mixed European and Indigenous American ancestry

Tupac Amaru Rebellion–1780–81

a major indigenous uprising against Spanish colonial rule in the Andes region of South America, lasting from 1780 to 1783

French Revolution

the French Revolution refers to the period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799, which led to the end of the French monarchy and the establishment of a republic, deeply influencing democratic ideals in the US and across the world. Americans initially celebrated it as a model for liberty, but later split into factions over its radical violence and anti-religious aspects, a division that shaped American politics and contributed to the emergence of the first American party system

Haitian Revolution–1791–1804

In US history, the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) refers to the successful anti-colonial and anti-slavery uprising by formerly enslaved people in the French colony of Saint-Domingue that resulted in the establishment of Haiti as the first independent black republic in the world and the second independent nation in the Americas after the United States

32nd Saint-Domingue – French colony; became Haiti.

Toussaint L’Ouverture

In U.S. history, Toussaint L'Ouverture was a formerly enslaved person who became the leader of the Haitian Revolution, a pivotal struggle for freedom and the abolition of slavery that culminated in Haiti's independence in 1804

Napoleon

Napoleon" most often refers to Napoleon Bonaparte, a French military leader and emperor whose reign significantly impacted the United States, primarily through the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the resulting conflicts with Great Britain that contributed to the War of 1812. Napoleon's ambitious foreign policy and military campaigns reshaped Europe, but his sale of Louisiana to the U.S. represented a strategic shift, ending French ambitions in North America and influencing the expansion of the United States.  

Jean Jacques Dessalines

Jean-Jacques Dessalines is recognized as the first leader of independent Haiti, a former slave and general who declared Haiti's independence from France in 1804 following the Haitian Revolution. He became Haiti's first Emperor and a key figure in the Americas'

 Declaration of Rights of Man

a fundamental document from the French Revolution adopted in 1789 that outlined individual liberties like freedom of speech, religion, and property. While influenced by American ideals

Inconfidência Mineira –1788–89

a failed revolutionary. attempt to overthrow the Portuguese rule over Brazil in Minas Gerais, Brazil in 1789

Second Continental Congress

The Second Continental Congress was the body of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that governed the colonies during the American Revolutionary War, serving as the de facto central government

Olive Branch Petition

The Olive Branch Petition was a document adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 5, 1775, as a final attempt to avoid a full-blown war with Great Britain by appealing to King George III to reconcile with the colonies

patriot/loyalist

a Patriot was a colonist who supported independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution, while a Loyalist was a colonist who remained loyal to the British Crown and opposed independence

Common Sense/Thomas Paine –1776

In US history, Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" was a revolutionary pamphlet published in 1776 that argued for the independence of the American colonies from Great Britain. Written in a clear, accessible style, it made the case that monarchy and hereditary rule were unnatural and that the colonies should establish an independent, republican government. The pamphlet was incredibly influential, changing public opinion and encouraging the Continental Congress to declare independence and fight for a new nation based on principles of liberty and self-governance

Declaration of Independence–1776

a document adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced the separation of the 13 American colonies from Great Britain, declaring them to be "Free and Independent States"

George III

n US history, George III (reigned 1760–1820) was the King of Great Britain whose policies led to the American Revolution, making him the monarch during the colonies' separation into the United States. He is famously portrayed as a tyrant in the Declaration of Independence for enforcing taxes and stricter control over the colonies, which fueled colonial resentment and led to rebellion.  

 Hessians

In U.S. history, the Hessians were German soldiers, predominantly from the German state of Hesse-Kassel, hired by Great Britain to fight for the British Crown during the American Revolutionary War

Guerrilla War

operations carried out by small, independent forces—typically behind enemy lines—with the objective of harassing, delaying, and disrupting the enemy's military operations

American/British Strengths/Weaknesses

the Americans had strengths in their strong motivation for independence, familiarity with the land, and capable leadership, but were weakened by a lack of resources, training, and a formal army. The British had strengths in a well-trained, well-supplied, and experienced army and the world's strongest navy, but were weakened by the immense distance from home for supplies and troops, a lack of motivation among their mercenary soldiers, and unfamiliarity with the colonial terrain. 

Gen. William Howe

General Sir William Howe is famous for commanding the British forces in the American Revolution from 1775 to 1778, where he achieved military victories but failed to decisively defeat George Washington and end the rebellion,

George Washington.

George Washington played a pivotal role in the formation and early years of the United States, serving as the commander of the Continental Army during the American Revolution

such as those at Trenton and Yorktown, were crucial to American independence

John Burgoyne

General John Burgoyne was a British officer in the American Revolutionary War, known for his failed Saratoga Campaign in 1777. His goal was to divide New England from other colonies by controlling the Hudson River, but his army was defeated and surrounded, forcing his surrender at Saratoga. This surrender is a major turning point in the war, boosting American morale and convincing France to form a crucial alliance with the Americans. 

Saratoga-1777

the Battle of Saratoga (1777) was a decisive American victory in the American Revolutionary War, forcing the surrender of a British army and significantly shifting the war's trajectory. This turning point not only boosted American morale and confidence but, crucially, convinced France to enter the war as an American ally

Marquis de Lafayette

The Marquis de Lafayette was a French aristocrat and military officer who was a hero of the American Revolution, playing a crucial role in American independence as a major general in the Continental Army under George Washington. He earned respect through his leadership in battles like Brandywine and Yorktown, served as a key link between France and the nascent United States

Alliances with France/Spain/Holland

During the American Revolution, the United States formed strategic alliances with France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic (Holland) to gain crucial military, financial, and naval support against Great Britain

Lord Charles Cornwallis

Lord Charles Cornwallis was a British general during the American Revolution, famous for his surrender at the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, which effectively ended the war. After leading British forces in the Southern Campaign, including a defeat at Camden, SC, Cornwallis was cornered at Yorktown, Virginia, where he was trapped by American and French forces. His surrender marked a decisive American victory and led to peace negotiations and the formal recognition of the United States

Yorktown-1781

Yorktown is known for the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, the decisive battle that ended the American Revolutionary War and led to American independence. American and French forces, led by George Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau, trapped British General Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia, resulting in a decisive Franco-American victory and forcing the British to surrender

Treaty of Paris 1783.

formally ended the American Revolutionary War and recognized the United States as an independent nation. Key terms included granting the U.S. significant western territory to the Mississippi River, confirming fishing rights off Newfoundland, ensuring the withdrawal of British forces

Napoleon

Napoleon's invasion of Spain in the Napoleonic Wars created a power vacuum in the Spanish colonies, sparking the Latin American revolutions for independence. By deposing the Spanish king and placing his brother Joseph on the throne, Napoleon weakened Spanish authority, convincing Creole elites that they could form their own governments and eventually achieve full independence from Spain and Portugal. 

Coup d’état 

A coup d'état is the sudden, illegal overthrow of an existing government, typically by a small group of the military or political elite.

Home Rule 

Home rule and municipal autonomy have a long and complex history in Latin America, shaped by Spanish colonialism, independence movements, and modern-day decentralization reforms

Father Miguel Hidalgo

Father Miguel Hidalgo is the "Father of Mexican Independence" for launching the independence movement with his 1810 "Grito de Dolores," which called for rebellion against Spain. Though the poorly armed indigenous and mestizo army he led was ultimately defeated by Spanish troops, Hidalgo's actions ignited the struggle that led to Mexico's freedom and shaped the broader fight for Latin American independence. 

Grito de Dolores

The Grito de Dolores is not related to the broader independence of Latin America but specifically marks the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence on September 16, 1810

Jose Maria Morelos

Spain after the death of Miguel Hidalgo, advocating for a fully independent nation with social equality. He organized a disciplined military, convened the Congress of Chilpancingo in 1813 to issue the document Sentimientos de la Nación, and fought for a republic free from colonial rule. Though captured and executed in 1815,

imón Bolívar

Simón Bolívar was a key military and political leader of the Latin American wars of independence from Spain, liberating what are now Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela, and co-founding Gran Colombia. He was driven by the desire for a free and unified South America but faced challenges uniting the region. His tactical brilliance, like the Crossing of the Andes and the Battle of Boyacá, secured major victories, and he was a central figure in creating Gran Colombia before ultimately becoming disillusioned with the disunity among the new nations and dying in 1830

New Granada

the Viceroyalty of New Granada (present-day Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, and Venezuela) was a battleground for independence from Spain

Rio de la Plata

The Río de la Plata was central to the Latin American Revolution as the seat of the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata

May Revolution-1810

The May Revolution (1810) was a key event in the Latin American Wars of Independence, initiating Argentina's struggle for independence from Spain by deposing the Viceroy in Buenos Aires and establishing a local government called the Primera Junta

Centralists/Federalists

Centralists advocated for a strong, centralized national government, while federalists sought greater autonomy for provinces and regions. 

May 1810 Revolution

The May Revolution (Revolución de Mayo) was a pivotal event in 1810 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, which marked the start of the Argentine struggle for independence from Spain. Triggered by news of Napoleon's invasion of Spain, local leaders formed a self-governing council, the Primera Junta, on May 25, 1810

Joao VI

Dom João VI of Portugal played a pivotal and paradoxical role in the Latin American revolution through his flight to Brazil, a move that initiated the colony's path to an exceptionally peaceful independence. His actions inadvertently laid the groundwork for Brazil's eventual separation from Portuga

Bernardo O’Higgins

Bernardo O'Higgins was a key leader in the Latin American struggle for independence, serving as a brilliant military and political figure for Chile. He was instrumental in establishing Chile as an independent republic, rising from an early military defeat to become Supreme Director of Chile and a foundational figure of the nation. He is remembered as the "Liberator of Chile"

King Fernando VII

King Ferdinand VII's capture by Napoleon and subsequent imprisonment was the immediate catalyst for the Latin American Wars of Independence, as it created a power vacuum that Criollo leaders used to assert local control and eventually declare independence from Spain

Jose de San Martin

José de San Martín was a key leader of the Latin American independence movements, liberating Argentina, Chile, and Peru from Spanish rule through innovative military campaigns, most notably the Crossing of the Andes

Republic de Gran Colombia

The Republic of Gran Colombia was a short-lived, unified state in northern South America created in 1819 by Simón Bolívar

Cadiz Mutiny

The Cádiz Mutiny was a failed military expedition against the Latin American independence movements in January 1820

Plan of Iguala –1821

The Plan of Iguala, issued by Agustín de Iturbide on February 24, 1821, was a revolutionary proclamation that led to the independence of Mexico from Spain, based on three guarantees: Religion, Independence, and Unity

Col. Agustin de Iturbide

Colonel Agustín de Iturbide was a key military leader and emperor during Mexico's war of independence from Spain, ultimately failing to maintain power and being executed in 1824. He was born in 1783 in what is now Morelia, Mexico, initially served the Spanish crown against insurgents, then shifted allegiances to negotiate the Plan de Iguala, leading to Mexico's independence.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

Antonio López de Santa Anna was a dominant and opportunistic figure in early to mid-19th century Latin American revolutions, particularly in Mexico, where he served as president multiple times. He led a military coup to establish a dictatorship after opposing a federal constitution, which triggered revolts in states like Texas. Santa Anna led forces to crush these rebellions

Mexican Constitution of 1824

The Mexican Constitution of 1824 significantly influenced relations within Latin America by promoting the spread of federalism, defining the status of Central America, and navigating the era of the Monroe Doctrine

Wars of Independence

The Wars of Independence in Latin America involved complex relationships, including regional alliances between patriot leaders like Bolívar and San Martín, external influences from the American and French Revolutions and Napoleonic Wars, support and opposition from foreign powers like Great Britain, the U.S., and France, and the lasting impact of these conflicts on the political, social, and economic structures of the newly independent nations and the hemisphere

Dom Pedro 

Dom Pedro, referring to both Emperors Dom Pedro I and Dom Pedro II, significantly shaped Latin American relations by leading Brazil to independence from Portugal with Dom Pedro I, and fostering international ties, particularly with the United States, during the reign of his son, Dom Pedro II. Dom Pedro II's 1876 visit to the U.S. marked him as the first monarch to visit the country, opening doors for cultural exchange and strengthening Brazil's international standing within Latin America and beyond