Psy 316 - Midterm 2

________________ is the process of gaining information and placing it into memory.

________________ is the process of gaining information and placing it into memory.

Acquisition

__________________ is the process of holding information in memory until it is needed.

Storage

_______________ is the process of locating information in memory and bringing it into active use.

retrieval

What is the order of information processing? (Try to give a quick explanation for what each one does.)(starting with incoming information.)

Sensory memory -> Short-term memory -> Long-term -> Retrieval

-Sensory memory: holds input in raw sensory form (holds iconic and echoic memory)

-Short-term memory: holds input while you're working with it (holds working memory)

-Long-term memory: holds all knowledge and beliefs, even those you aren't currently thinking about

Iconic Memory takes hours to fade and disappear.

a. True

b. False

b. False; it decays very quickly

What does sensory memory do?

-Allows you to retain impressions of a sensory stimulus after the stimulus has stopped until you transfer it to short term memory

What can be learned in the Letter-Row test?

-when there is a shorter gap between letters and/or rows leads to better performance

-people were better able to recall one row better than all 9 letters

-there is a change in recall ability depending on the time passed between the display of the letters and the recall request

What are the differences between working memory and long-term memory?

Working:

-it is temporary and fragile

-it is limited

-entry is relatively easy

-retrieval is relatively easy

Long-term:

-it is long-lasting

-it is enormous

-entry is effortful

-retrieval can be difficult, slow, and sometimes unsuccessful

Explain the primacy effect and the recency effect in relation to the Serial Position Effect. (describe the graph in the Serial Position Effect Demo.)

-Primacy effect: the likelihood of remembering the first few words on a list

-Recency effect: the likelihood of remembering the last few words on a list

-(Graph has a wide "J" shape)

Where does primacy effect come from?

-the words at the beginning of the list are more rehearsed

-they receive more attention and are more likely to enter long-term memory

Where does recency effect come from?

-Words at the end of the list are likely to still be in working memory

-as new words come in, previous words get bumped out of working memory

What are some changes that can affect the primacy effect and recency effect? Which type of memory can these affect?

-filling the delay between word list and recall/ can impact working memory

-slowing the presentation/ can impact long-term memory

___________ is when people are read a series of digits, and immediately repeat them back.

digit span

____________ is when participants read a sentences aloud and are asked to recall sentence-final words.

reading span

What are some aspects of digit span tests?

-series gets longer when participants are successful

-chunking is done on larger number lengths

-people typically can remember 7 digits (plus-or-minus 2)

What are some aspects of reading span tests?

-requires you to store some information while working with other information

-correlated with performance on tests of reasoning and comprehension

__________ is a package whose contents vary with individual.

Chunk/ chunking

Which is a real-world example of chunking?

A. Word lists

B. Phone numbers

C. Coding

D. Spelling tests

B. Phone numbers

___________ integrates information from multiple sources and plans and coordinates processing.

Central executive

____________ is used for storing the appearance and position of items, and the maintenance of visual information.

Visuo-spatial sketchpad

____________ is used for storing verbal material and maintenance of word-form information.

Phonological loop

______________ helps the executive organize information into a chronological sequence.

Episodic buffer

Central executive, phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad function relatively independently of each other.

a. true

b. false

a. true

What are some components of the executive control?

-Control sequences of thought and action

-Select and launch responses

-Plan and set goals

-Break habit or routine

-Associated with prefrontal cortex

What are the two classic effects of the phonological loop? (Bonus: provide an example of each.)

-Phonological similarity effect - ex. if a word list consists of "cat, bat, and hat" one is likely to mistake one of the words for another "-at" word.

-Word length effect - ex. if a word list consists of long words like "individual, management, and television" are less likely to be remembered. (Other examples are good)

_______________ is when recall is worse when words sound similar, than when they sound different.

Phonological similarity effect

________________ is when you forget longer words quicker then shorter words.

Word length effect

Explain the two types of rehearsal.

-Maintenance rehearsal: focusing on a item to remember it, with focusing on other aspects not the word (what it means or how it relates to other items)

-Relational/ elaborative rehearsal: think about what an item means or how it relates to other items

Explain the two types of learning discussed in this class and provide one example of each.

-intentional learning: hearing something and intentionally trying to learn to. Ex. Given a list of words and trying to memorize as many words as possible.

-incidental learning: doing a task and learning things as a side effect. Ex. Watching a show and by the end of it you remember the names of the characters.

Explain shallow and deep processing.

-Shallow processing: engaging with the material in superficial fashion

-Deep processing: requires thought about what the words mean

________________ are techniques devised to improve memory.

Mnemonic strategies

______________ involve when you want to remember something, you travel along paths that link memories together.

Retrieval Paths

What is context-dependent learning? And what is a example of this.

This is when learning a specific item is recalled easier in the same environment that it was learned. (Ex. The "land and underwater learning" study)

_______________ is what you place into memory is the stimulus along with its context

encoding specificity

(1) are the representations of concepts, and (2) are the connections between them.

A. 1. Nodes / 2. Associative links

B. 1. Neurons / 2. Neural links

C. 1. Associative links / 2. Nodes

D. 1. Nodes / 2. Activation links

A. 1. Nodes / 2. Associative links

__________ is the idea that as each node becomes activated, activation spreads through the network to connected nodes.

Spreading activation

What are memories organized by?

A. Semantic relatedness

B. Interest

C. Semantic Importance

D. To do with us

A. Semantic relatedness

What are some aspects of spreading activation model?

-semantic relatedness - Close relationships = less semantic distance

-Activation spreads throughout network

-Nodes farther away don't get activated much or quickly

Explain recall and recognition, give a example of each.

-Recall: retrieving information (ex. Fill-in-the-blank questions on exams)

-Recognition: identifying an item amongst other choices (ex. Multiple choice questions on exams)

(Other examples are welcome)

What are the two parts of recognition? How are they related to source memory?

-Familiarity - Source memory is not available

-Recollection - Source memory is available

What is implicat memory? How can it be tested?

-This is when one is exposed to a stimulus and later exposed to the same stimulus, but there behavior during the second exposure is different then the first. The person is often unaware of these changes.

-These can be tested by an indirect memory test to show that the behavior is influenced by prior events.

Describe the "False fame effect" and what is found.

Participant were asked to read a list of names out loud. These same participants were asked to come back for another trial. They were given a list of names (including real famous names, new random names, and names from the previous list) and asked to identify who was famous. It found that many of the participants label the previous names as famous (believed to be caused by familiarity).

Describe the "illusion of truth". What did it find?

-Participants heard a series of statements and were asked to judge how interesting they were. Later on, participants were asked to judge the credibility of a second set of statements, with some repeated statements.

-The more that a participant heard a statement the more likely they were to think it was true.

What are some theoretical explanations for implicit memory effects?

-Use of a processing pathway increases the speed and ease with which pathway will carry activation

-People may be sensitive to the degree of processing fluency (you know whether it was easy or hard to perceive something)

-When a stimulus feels special, you want to know why

___________ is knowing how to do something.

Procedural memory

__________ is changes in behavior caused by previous experiences.

Priming

Explain semantic memory and episodic memory.

semantic memory:

-General knowledge and facts lacking reference to the episodic context in which it was learned

episodic memory:

-Memory for specific events in context

-Comes with a sense of reliving the event

__________________ is the loss of memory.

Amnesia

What are the two types of amnesia? (Explain them)

-Retrograde amnesia: disruption of memory for things that happened prior to the injury

-Anterograde amnesia: disruption of memory for things that happened after the injury

________________ is the disrupted episodic memory but intact semantic memory.

Clive wearing

Patient data supports connections between memory systems.

a. true

b. false

b. false

What is the story of H.M.? What happened to him? What were the after/ side effects?

-H.M. received surgery to bilaterally remove the hippocampus in order to cure his epilepsy.

-suffered from severe anterograde amnesia/ Could recall events that happened prior to surgery, but not events that happened after the surgery

-H.M. could still form implicit memories

What is Korsakoff's syndrome? What were some of the effects?

-Korsakoff's syndrome: thiamine deficiency, often associated with chronic alcohol use

-Little difficulty remembering events before the alcoholism and new information is forgotten quickly

-Could still form implicit memories

H.M. and Korsakoff's patients still have ability to form implicit memories.

a. True

b. False

a. True

What happens when the hippocampus is damaged? What did patients with this type of damage do in the "colored lights and boat horn" test?

-these patients had issues with explicit memories

-people with explicit memory issues were asked, what color was associated with the boat horn. They could not remember the color, but they would sweat because of implicit memories (fear conditioning).

What happens when the amygdala is damaged? What did patients with this type of damage do in the "colored lights and boat horn" test?

-these patients had issues with implicit memories

-these patients had their skin's conductance checked while being asked what color was associated. They could say which color, but they would not sweat.

What are some of the issues and challenges with testing memory in a lab vs in real life?

-Materials: lists of words vs. complex material

-Time frame: one experimental session vs. your life

-Reason behind learning: you're told to vs. you want to

-What you measure: how many items on a list vs. how much it matches real life

What is one real-life examples of memory errors?

-film of princess Diana's car crash that doesn't exist

-film of the 9/11 plane crashing into first building that doesn't exist

-film of 1992 Amsterdam plane crash that doesn't exist

What are some reasons that memory errors exist?

-Connections link bits of knowledge from one memory to other bits of knowledge

-each memory may not be stored alone and independently

-similar episodes can become linked together

-original memory for the episode linked with later thoughts about the episodes

________________ are errors in which other knowledge gets involved with the remembered event

Intrusion errors

what is a DRM procedure? What is an example of this?

-this is a procedure in which words relating to a topic are read, and when the participant is asked to repeat it back they list the wrong word.

-ex. A word list has "husky, german shepherd, and dachshund", but the person remember the word "dog".

____________ are broad patterns of what is normal in a situation.

Schema

Memories can be regularized.

a. True

b. False

A. True

What was the grand example of schemas from the slides? (What happened? Explain)

The "war of the Ghosts" experiment, British people were told a story about Native Americans and asked to retell it. The British people had omitted unfamiliar details from the story and replaced with families details. Also, steps of the original story that they don't follow easily, get filled in with familiar details.

______________ is when wrong information is received after an episode is over which can influence memories.

Misinformation effect

What examples were provided for misinformation effect? (Only need one)

-the hit/smash car crash experiment

-"how fast car was going when "racing by" the barn?"

-Asking whether they recall a detail someone else gave

-college students given list of events their parents reported with one fake event, and students remember the fake event

What are ways that the misinformation effect can be enforced/strengthened?

-Telling the person to think more about how the event unfolded

-Giving some fake details to try and create the memory

-Showing fake photos of the event in question

What are some possible reasons for forgetting?

-Decay: As time passes, memories fade

-Interference: New learning interferes with older learning

-Retrieval failure: Memories don't get pulled from storage

_________________ is a memory of episodes or events in a person's life

Autobiographical memory

__________________ is a memory advantage for materials that pertain to you

Self-reference effect

________________ is a set of generic knowledge about your usual behavior

Self-schema

What are 2 biases with Autobiographical memory?

-stability

-positivity

______________ are memories of clarity, typically for highly emotional events

Flashbulb memories

Flashbulb memories will not change, they stay consistent.

a. True

b. False

b. False; they change most within first few days, then become more consistent