(10) Develop theory of mind & Development of Self and Peer Relationships

We can talk about the definition of the self in two ways. What are they?

Implicit self vs Self concept

Implicit self

Sense that one has a body that can experience and act on the world and that this body is separate from the world.
=> Present from birth (rooting reflex).

Self-concept

Organized set of beliefs about oneself.
Includes personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, and roles.

Rudimentary self-concept emerges around __________ as evidenced by children passing ______.

18 months, rouge test

What's an example of things children do when they have a rudimentary self-concept? (2)

(1) Children also start using "me" pronoun and calling themselves by name around this age.
(2) Memory of what they look like ⇒ recognize themselves

Children's self-concept develops primarily by ________________________________________.

internalizing others' perceptions of them

A child internalize others' perceptions of them both directly & indirectly. Explain/Give examples for both.

Direct: Caregiver describes a child a certain way and the child incorporates that description into their self-concept. "you're good at math".
Indirect: How children are treated. E.g. treated poorly = not worthy of love

How does Self-Concept in Toddlers look like?

Gender usually the first characteristic present in their self-concept and is central to their sense of self.

When do children form basic gender identity?

2.5 - 3 yo
Start identifying as boy or girl and can label others as boys or girls.

Gender Socialization def

Process through which children learn about the social expectations, attitudes, and behaviours associated with girls and boys by internalizing the messages received about gender from caregivers and wider society.
E.g. Parents of day-old infants describe new born girls as softer, less strong, more delicate, and quieter than newborn boys.

Baby X studies explanation

Studies in which researchers label the same infant as a "boy" or a "girl" and then observe how adults interact with the infant.

Baby X studies results (2)

(1) Infants labelled as "boys" rated as bigger, stronger, louder and more likely to be encouraged to be active.
(2) Infants labelled as "girls" received more talk and nurturance.

Study: Parents of 11mo estimated the steepest slope their infants could safely crawl down without falling by setting the angle on a mechanical sloping walkway. What were the results?

Underestimated girls, correctly estimated boys.
Suggests that gender differences in motor skills only exist in parent's perception.

Subtle Gender Socialization: Play (2)

(1) Parents present boys with more physical challenges than girls.
(2) More likely to offer girls more help.

Subtle Gender Socialization: Language differences (2)

(1) Parents are more likely to use emotion words with girls than boys in early childhood.
(2) Emotion understanding thus develops earlier in girls.

Subtle Gender Socialization: Toy purchases

Boys have more toy trucks and girls have 5x more pink toys by 12 months-old.

Subtle Gender Socialization: Division of household chores

Homes in which parents take on more traditional gender roles in completing chores are communicating gender roles.

Subtle Gender Socialization: Media exposure

More TV viewing by preschoolers associated with them more likely saying that people see "boys as better than girls".

Self-Socialization def

Once a child identifies with a gender, they actively seek out gender-related information and conform their behaviour to this info.

When do children have rigid, gender-stereotyped behaviours?

3-5 year olds. Cross-cultural.

How is it demonstrated behaviorally? (2)

(1) Preference for toys and clothes that are consistent with gender identity
(2) Preference for same-gender playmates

Why is it so?

Lack of gender constancy

Gender constancy

Understanding that gender remains the same regardless of superficial changes to appearance or behaviour

When do rigid, gendered behaviour relaxes because gender constancy is achieved?

6yo
Accept more non-gendered appearance and toy preferences in themselves and others.

As children get older, they acquire more ______ ideas and expectations about gender that include traits, roles, abilities, etc.

complex
E.g., girls are quiet and well-behaved; boys are active and good at sports.

Implications of Gender Identity (3)

(1) Gender is a central characteristic that organizes children's self-concepts.
(2) Adherence to gender stereotypes can unnecessarily limit children's development in many domains
(3) Extent to which a child behaves in gender-consistent ways is associated with level of peer acceptance.

_____________________________________________________ is powerful way that gender stereotypes and identities are reinforced.

Greater engagement with peers of same gender

Even though children increase their gender flexibility with age, they tend to ______ peers who do not behave in typically gendered ways.

reject

Gender neutral parenting

Conscious parenting practice to encourage children to explore and express themselves in a way that is not defined by traditional gender roles. Common in WEIRD countries

When parents have more egalitarian views and behaviours, children tend to have _____ traditional gender-role attitudes.

less

Study: Comparison of gender development of transgender and cisgender children. Reported on strength of gender identity and gender-stereotyped preferences. What are the results?

Transgender children show strong identification and preferences aligned with current gender in a way that is very similar to cisgender children.

Implications (3)

(1) Transgender children's gender development follows similar patterns to cisgender children's development.
(2) Self-socialization plays a strong role in gender identity.
(3) There is nothing unique about the home gender socialization of transgender children.

How does self concept look like in early childhood (3-4yo)? (3)

(1) Gender is central to self-concept
(2) Concrete, observable characteristics that tend to focus on physical attributes and physical activities
(3) Unrealistically positive and confident

How does self concept look like in middle childhood (7-12yo)? (3)

(1) Describe self using personality traits and inner qualities e.g. "I'm shy".
(2) Self-concept is more balanced and accurate: Includes weakness but still positive overall

Changes in self-concept from early childhood due to: (2)

(1) Increased cognitive ability to use higher-order concepts and to think about multiple qualities simultaneously.
(2) Greater engagement in social comparison and more strongly influenced by the opinions of others.

How does self concept look like in Adolescence (13-18yo)? (3)

(1) Can think of themselves in increasingly abstract ways: "I'm extroverted, because I'm talkative, friendly, and energetic."
(2) More intense concerns about social acceptance which heavily influence self-concept
(3) Egocentrism

Explain Egocentrism in Adolescents (2)

(1) Assume that their thoughts and feelings are more unique than they really are. E.g. "You don't understand me!"
(2) Imaginary audience: belief that everyone is very focused on their appearance and behavior.

When does Egocentrism peak?

Early-mid adolescence

Awareness of ________________________________ leads to confusion and many questions about identity in adolescence

differences in behaviour in different social settings

______________________ is the primary psychosocial task of adolescence/ early adulthood.

Forming an identity

Identity is formed through a process of: (2)

Exploration: questioning of parental and societal values and experimenting with various facets of identity (appearance, hobbies...).
Commitment: consolidation and acceptance of who one is as indicated by the choices one makes.
-> Both take years

What are the two dimensions of Marcia's Identity Statuses?

Exploration (yes/no) & Commitment (yes/no)

Marcia's Identity Statuses (4)

Identity achievement, Moratorium, Foreclosure, Identity diffusion

Identity diffusion characteristics (4)

(1) NO exploration & NO commitment.
(2) Due to lack of interest in own identity or indecision
(3) Common in children
(4) If persists into late adolescence/adulthood, associated with feeling disconnected, being easily influenced by others, and little sense of purpose

Moratorium characteristics (4)

(1) YES exploration & NO commitment
(2) Brought about by awareness of multiple selves and exposure to different identity options.
(3) Feelings of confusion and anxiety are normal at this status.
(4) Necessary for identity achievement.

Foreclosure characteristics (3)

(1) NO exploration, YES commitment
Due to:
(2) Parents making decisions for teen without their input
(3) Teen strongly identifies with a parent and wishes to follow in their footsteps

Foreclosure is more likely in _________ and ____________.

obedient children, authoritarian parenting

Potential problems caused by foreclosure (2)

(1) Committed to an identity that is not a good fit for their authentic self
(2) Commitment is less strong

Identity achievement characteristics (4)

(1) YES exploration, YES commitment
(2) Associated with most positive mental health and social outcomes
(3) Usually achieved in early adulthood
(4) Biggest gains in identity are in university due to greater exposure to different lifestyles, beliefs, and career options

Most teens are in _________ or ________.

moratorium, foreclosure

Criticisms of Marcia's Identity Status Theory (2)

(1) Research into identity statuses conducted in WEIRD samples. Progression & outcome may differ in non WEIRD societies
(2) Identity development is a continuous process, not limited to adolescence. Life events in adulthood can restart the process (e.g., losing a job).

Play def

Voluntary activities done for inherent enjoyment.

Non-Social Play

Play that doesn't involve the participation of peers.

Types of Non-Social play (3)

Unoccupied, Solitary, Onlooker play

Unoccupied play (Birth-3mo)

Child briefly watches things around them, but nothing holds their attention for long.

Solitary play (3mo-2yo)

Child is focused on their own activity and is uninterested in playing with others.

Onlooker play (2yo)

Child watches other children's play (but not rly interacting with them). May ask questions, but won't join in.

Social Play def

Play that involves participation of peers.

Types of social play (3)

Parallel, Associative, Cooperative play

Parallel play (2-3yo)

Children play next to each other, possibly doing the same activity, but do not interact much.

Associative play (3-4yo)

Children play together, engaging sometimes, but have different goals.

Cooperative play (4+yo)

Children play together and are working towards a common goal. => Progression onto more advanced forms of play doesn't mean that children no longer engage in less advanced form of play.

Why is playing critical (which aspect does it help)? (3)

(1) Social-emotional dev: Learn to cooperate + TOM
(2) Cognitive dev: Practice problem solving + Learn about world through trial/error + dev language skills
(3) Motor dev: Unoccupied play fosters motor skills

How does teaching affect exploratory play? Explain with a study

4-6yo shown a toy with many plastic tubes. Accident vs Teaching groups (it squeaks).
Children played longer and tried more different actions when the experimenter squeaked the toy accidentally.
Teaching discouraged the children from discovery during play.

Implications (2)

(1) Letting children play spontaneously allows them to learn
(2) Adults can best support play (and learning) by following children's lead so that a child can build knowledge themselves

Friend def

A person that's not a relative with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, and positive relationship.

Most important factors in children's friendships (2)

Similarity & Proximity

Explain Similarity (5)

(1) Age
(2) Acceptance by peers
(3) Personality (e.g. cooperativeness, shyness)
(4) Level of negative emotions
(5) Academic motivation

Explain proximity (3)

(1) Lives in the same neighbourhood
(2) Go to the same school
(3) Participate in same extracurricular activities

The preference in children for friends of the same gender emerges around _____ and peaks at _____ (esp for ___)

3yo, 13yo, girls

Developmental Trajectory of Friendships: 1-2 yo

Show preference of some children over others:
- Touch them more often
- Smile more at them

Developmental Trajectory of Friendships: 2-3 yo

Developing more complex social behaviors:
- E.g., imitating peers' behaviors, cooperative problem solving, turn taking
- Emergence of parallel play

Developmental Trajectory of Friendships: 3-5yo (4)

(1) Most kids have at least one friend
(2) Friendship defined as playing together. E.g. Best friend = peer a child plays with most
(3) But friends also have more conflict than non-friends. More likely to cooperate to resolve conflict than non-friends.
(4) Emergence of preference for same gender peers (3-4 years of age).

Developmental Trajectory of Friendships: 6-8yo

Define friendship on basis of shared activities with peers.
E.g. "He's my friend because we both like to play soccer."

Developmental Trajectory of Friendships: 9-12yo

Definition of friendship expands to include trust, care, and help.

Developmental Trajectory of Friendships: adolescence

Friendship primarily defined by self-disclosure and intimacy.
Friendship takes on central importance
Age 13: start having more friends of different genders

As children get older, gender differences emerge in what they want out of friendship. (2)

(1) Desire more closeness and dependency in friendships
(2) But comes with more worrying and stress about friendships

Girls and boys show _____ levels of conflict and stability in friendships

similar

Sociometric Status def + how is it measured

Degree to which children are liked vs. disliked by peers.
Measured by having children anonymously nominate peers in their class that they like (positive nominations) and peers in their class that they dislike (negative nominations).

5 status groups

Popular, Rejected, Average, Neglected, Controversial.
Associated with different behavioral profiles (very predictable). E.g. sociable kids more likely to be popular.

Popular Kids (__%). Tend to be ___ (4)

11% of kids. Liked by many and disliked by few.
Tend to be:
(1) Socially skilled
(2) Good emotion/regulation skills
(3) Assertive, but not aggressive
(4) Have factors that give them high status: Attractive, athletic, have popular friends.

Rejected Kids (__%). Tend to ___

13% of kids. Liked by few and disliked by many.
Tend to have fewer positive social skills compared to peers.

What are the 2 types of Rejected kids

Rejected-aggressive & Rejected-withdrawn

Rejected-aggressive Kids (__%). Tend to ___

40-50% of rejected kids
Tend to show high levels of hostility, threatening behaviour, physical aggression, and delinquency
Vicious circle: Bc they're aggressive, they're rejected, and bc they're rejected they're more aggressive.

Rejected-withdrawn Kids (__%). Tend to ___ (2)

10-25% of rejected kids.
Tend to:
(1) Be socially withdrawn, timid, and socially anxious.
(2) Frequently victimized and feel lonely, isolated, depressed
Also vicious circle

Controversial Kids (__%). Tend to ___ (2)

7% of kids. Liked by many but also disliked by many. Characteristics of rejected-aggressive and popular kids. E.g. Class clowns, bullies...
(1) Aggressive, disruptive, and prone to anger.
Compensate for this with many positive social skills like being cooperative, sociable, and funny.

Neglected Kids (__%). Tend to ___ (3)

9% of kids. Don't receive many nominations. Not liked or dislike. Neutral/ not noticed. Don't draw attention to themselves
(1) Less social and less disruptive than average children but not at risk for negative outcomes.
(2) Simply prefer solitary activities.
(3) Can be socially skilled in more structured activities.

Average Kids (__%).

60% of kids. Moderate number of likes and dislikes.
More social than rejected and neglected kids, but not as social as popular and controversial kids

Stability of Sociometric Status: Short term (2)

(1) Neglected or controversial children are likely to change status.
(2) Popular, rejected, and average children tend to remain so.

Stability of Sociometric Status: Long term (2)

(1) Sociometric status more likely to change
(2) Average and rejected status most stable

Importance of Friendship (2)

(1) Provides social validation and support
(2) Fosters development of positive social skills

Explain: Provides social validation and support (4)

(1) Especially important during transitions
(2) Kids tend to rely more on friends than parents starting in adolescence
(3) Chronic friendlessness is associated with increased loneliness and depression
(4) Friendship buffers against negative experiences

Explain: Fosters development of positive social skills (3)

(1) Builds cooperation, theory of mind, conflict resolution skills
(2) Gossip allows children to learn about social norms
(3) Childhood friendships are "practice" for adult relationships

Study: 10-11yo reported on their negative experiences over the course of 4 days. What are the results (if bff was there vs not) (2)

(1) If bff was not present, more negative experiences associated with increased cortisol and lower self-worth.
(2) Not if bff was present

Study: Longitudinal study of 707 participants from childhood to age 18. Assessed 1) Quality of caregiving experiences 2) Child's social competence 3) Self-reported best friendship quality 4) Attachment avoidance and anxiety
What were the results?

Less supportive parenting, lower social competence, and lower quality friendships across childhood predicted more adult attachment insecurity.

Avoidance at age 18 predicted by: (in order - 4)

(1) Lower social competence in childhood (-0.39)
(2) Best friendship quality (-0.30)
(3) Lower maternal sensitivity (-0.20)
(4) Higher maternal depression (0.14)

Anxiety at age 18 predicted by: (in order - 3)

(1) Lower social competence in childhood (-0.23)
(2) Higher maternal depression (0.17)
(3) Best friendship quality (-0.15)

Implications

Effect of social skills and friendship experiences on adult attachment is similar to (if not larger) to effect of caregiving experiences.
Friendship Shapes Early Adult Attachment

Study: Friendship assessed at 10yo and then follow-up at 22yo.
At age 10, kids who had a best friend (vs. those that didn't) were seen as: ______ (2)
At age 22, those that had a best friend at age 10: ________ (3)

Had a bf at 10yo: (1) Less aggressive (2) More popular/well liked
22yo that had bf at 10yo: (1) More successful in university (2) Better family/social lives (3) High self-esteem & less anxiety/depression

Rejected, especially aggressive-rejected, status in childhood is associated with a variety of negative outcomes: _____ (7)

(1) More aggression
(2) Delinquency in teens
(3) Substance abuse
(4) Continued unhealthy relationships into adolescence and adulthood
(5) Low self-esteem
(6) Less education and limited work success
(7) Crime in adulthood