Concepts in Science Biological Sciences Final

What nutrient starts to breakdown in the mouth?

Starch

What is Maltose?

A disacharide that is a broken down starch

What is an Epiglottis?

A door like structure made of cartilage that allows you to breath by going up and prevents the food going throught hte trachea by closing the door on the trachea.

What is peristalsis?

Smooth muslces contracting and relaxing (eg. Esophogus)

What is the PH of stomach acid (HCI-hydrochloric Acid)?

2

What is the enzyme called that digests proteins in the stomach?

Pepsin

What type of cells secrete pepsinogen? What is Pepsinogen?

Chief cells, pepsinogens are an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin.

What type of cells secrete HCI-Hydrochloric acid?

Parietal Cells

What is the sphincters that are before and after your stomach called?What are their purpose?

Before-Cardiac sphincter After-Pyloric sphincter. Its purpose is to slowly allow entry into the stomach and the small intestines.

Where does majority of the chemical digestion happen?

Small Intestines

Where are proteins, Carbohydrates, and Lipids finished?

Proteins and carbs are finished in the small intestines, Lipids are started and finished in the small intestines as well.

What are the 3 areas in the small intestine?

Duodenum, Jujenum, Ilium.

What enzyme is secreted to digest Maltose? And what does it digest into?

Pancreatic Amylase and it digests into Glucose.

What is the process of breaking down starch?

1st step Mouth- starch ---> maltose

2nd step small intestines- maltose -----> glucose (using pancreatic amylase)

what is the process of breaking down proteins?

1st step Stomach- polypeptides ----> short chains of amino acids (with help of pepsin)

2nd step small intestines- short chains of amino acids ----> single amino acids (with help of trypsin enzyme made by pancreas)

What is the process of breaking down lipids?

1st step small intestine- big fat molecules ----> smaller molecules (by bile)

2nd step- small fat molecules-----> glycerol + 3 fatty acids (by enzyme called lipase)

What is the main purpose of the large intestine (Colon)?

-Reabsorption of water in blood streams

-Storage and elimination of waste

-Secretion of mucus to allow passage of solids

-Decomposition of organic materials with the help of bacteria

-Productions of vitamins (eg. K)

Where is Bile produced and stored?

Bile is produced in the liver but stored in the gallbladder

What enzymes are used to digest carbs, fats and proteins?

Pancreatic amylase, Lipase, Trypsin

What hormones does the pancreas release?

insulin and glucagon

What are the main functions of the liver?

Storage of sugar as glycogen, Formation of blood plasma proteins, Formation of urea from the metabolism of proteins, Modification of fats to promote their usefulness in the body, Detoxification of harmful substances such as alchohol and certain drugs, Storage of some vitamins and irons

What are the main functions of the gallbladder?

store and concentrate bile

What type of circulatory system do humans have?

Double circulatory system (Pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit)

How many valves are in the heart?

4 valves (Right atrium to right ventricle, left atrium to left ventricle, ventricle to pulmonary artery, ventricle to aorta)

What / are the differences between arteries and veins?

Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood to the heart.

Left side of the heart pumps only:

Oxygenated blood

Right side of the heart pumps only:

Deoxygenated blood

What is the pulmonary circuit and Systemic circuit?

Pulmonary circuit carries blood between the heart and lungs, systemic carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body

What is the valve called between the right atrium and the right ventricle?

Tricuspid valve

What is the valve called between the left atrium and left ventricle?

Bicuspid valve

Where is the Superior and Inferior vena cava located?

Superior- top right.

Inferior- bottom right

What is blood?

connective tissue

What is the function of platelets?

Blood clotting

What is plasma?

liquid portion of blood contains water, electrolytes, and plasma proteins (55%)

What are red blood cells?

contain hemoglobin to carry oxygen

What contains iron in red blood cells?

Heme group

What are the fibres in blood clotting called?

Fibrin

What is the growth of plaque on the inner wall of the arteries called?

Atherosclerosis

What causes heart attacks?

blockage of coronary artery

What is a coronary artery?

blood vessel that supplies the heart with oxygen

What causes a stroke?

When oxygen to brain is blocked or when a brain bleed/hemorrhage occurs.

What are varicose veins?

Twisted veins

What is the anatomical pathway of air?

Nostril, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea,primarybronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, bronchioles, Alveoli

What is the tear gland called?

lacrimal gland

What is your nose covered in and what is it washed by?

Ciliate epithelium, mucus, and it is washed by your tears

What is asexual reproduction known as?

• Budding - Common in invertebrates, an organism produces offspring by producing individual outgrowths from existing ones.

• Fission - a parent organism divides/separates to create two or more offspring of the same size

• Fragmentation - Common in plants, breaking of an organism’s body into several pieces, and some or all of which grow into adults.

What is the human life cycle? (Sexual Reproduction)

Ovary & Testis → Meiosis → Haploid Gametes & Sperm Cell → Fertilisation → Diploid Zygote → Mitosis & Development → Multicellular Diploid Adults.

What is external fertilization?

• Eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm outside the body of the female.

• This process commonly occurs in aquatic animals, such as fish and amphibians, where both eggs and sperm are released into the water.

What is internal fertilization?

Sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive tract and fertilization occurs within the tract.

What is the pathway of an egg?

Ovary → oviduct → uterus → vagina → vaginal opening

What is Endometriosis?

• One of the most common gynaecological conditions

• Occurs when tissue (endometrium) lining the inside of the uterus grows outside the uterus

  • Often on organs in the pelvic and abdominal areas

• This condition is very painful for sufferers

What are the common symptoms of Endometriosis?

• Painful periods, severe cramping

• Painful intercourse

• Fatigue / Exhaustion / Low Energy

• Other Abdominal pain - Lower back pain

• Heavy / Irregular Bleeding

What causes endometriosis? how does one test for endometriosis?

• Causes - Genetics, high estrogen levels, and possibly environmental agents.

• Tests - Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), ultrasound, laparoscopy

  • A laparoscopy is a form of surgery that allows viewing of the nodules or obtaining tissue for biopsy

What is the pathway of an sperm?

Testis → Epididymis → Vas deferens → Sperm duct → Urethra

What is the testis?

• The paired testes produce sperm

• The testes hang below the body, housed in the scrotum, which maintains the testes at a lowered temperature.

• Sperm are produced by meiosis in the seminiferous tubules

• Sperm are collected into the epididymis, which leads to the vas deferens.

What the accessory glands in the Male reproductive system?

• Seminal Vesicles

• Prostate Gland

• Bulbourethral gland

  • These produce the fluid portion of semen

What does the seminal vesicle do?

• Secretes a fructose-rich fluid

  • Provides nourishment for sperm

What does the prostate gland do?

• Secretes an alkaline fluid rich in prostaglandins

  • Combat acidic urethra and vagina environments and to enhance sperm motility

What does the bulbourethral gland do?

Secretes mucus for lubrication

What is Prostate cancer?

Affects 1 in 6 men in North America

• Symptoms

  • Need to urinate frequently, difficulty starting or holding back urine, painful urination

  • Difficulties with erections, painful ejaculation

  • Blood in semen and urine

  • Pain in lower back, hips and upper thighs

Risk factors for prostate cancer

• Age - Men over 55, Average age of diagnosis is 70

• Family History - Higher risk if father/brother diagnosed before age of 60

  • Among the cancers that are easiest to treat, about 89% survive at 5 years and 63% at 10 years.

What is the urinary (excretory system)

• Responsible for Excretion (gets rid of metabolic wastes)

• Among most important wastes are the nitrogenous wastes.

  • Different animals excrete nitrogenous wastes in different forms.

What is the pathway of urine?

Kidneys → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra → urinary opening

What are the two distinct regions of the mammalian kidney?

• Outer Cortex

• Inner Medulla

What is the functional part of the kidneys?

• Nephron

  • Consists of a single long tubule and a ball of capillaries called the glomerulus

What is the process the kidneys goes through?

1. Filtration

   • The excretory tubule collects a filtrate from the blood

   • Water and solutes are forced by blood pressure into the excretory tubule.

2. Reabsorption

   • Valuable substances are reclaimed from the filtrate and returned to the body fluids

3. Secretion

   • Other substances, such as toxins, are extracted from body fluids and added to the contents of the excretory tubule

4. Excretion

   • The filtrate leaves the body.

What is testicular atrophy?

• Reduction in the size of tissue responsible for sperm cells

• Symptoms

  • Decreased sex drive

  • May lead to infertility

  • Testes get shrunk

    • Due to a loss of some of the germ cells and Leydig cells

What is the causes of testicular atrophy?

• Radiation

• Chemotherapy

• Hormonal imbalance

• Steroids

• Viral infections

  • Mumps, STI’s (Gonorrhea and Syphilis)

• Old age

• Injury

What are seminiferous tubules?

Tubes inside the testes where the sperm cells are formed

What is responsible for the production of testosterone?

Leydig cells

What is an ectopic pregnancy?

• Tubal pregnancy occurs when a fertilised egg develops outside the uterus (usually in the fallopian tube)

• High risk for rupture and death.

• Annually affect less than 2% of pregnancies worldwide.

What is Mumps?

• Viral Infection of the Parotid Gland

• Becomes swollen and tender

• May spread to the other salivary glands

• Common childhood diseases before the vaccine

What is Uterine Leiomyoma?

Development of fibre nodules (also known as fibroids) in the uterus

What is Chron's disease?

• Also known as Inflammatory Bowel Syndrome (IBS)

• May involve the small and large intestine (mainly the small)

• Symptoms

  • Abdominal Pain and Diarrhoea

  • Rectal Bleeding - Bleeding may be persistent, leading to anaemia

  • Weight loss

  • Skin Problems

  • Sometimes fever

• The onset of this disease is between 15-25 years of age

• A common complication is the blockage of the intestine

  • Disease thickens the intestinal wall with swelling and scar tissue

What is sense of Sight?

• The receptors for the sense of sight are in our eyes

• Receptor: A specialised cell or tissue sensitive to a specific stimulus

What are the 3 layers of the eye? What does it contain?

• Outer / Fibrous

  • Sclera and Cornea

• Middle / Vascular

  • Choroid, Iris, Pupil

• Inner / Neuronal

  • Retina

    • Rods / Cones (Photoreceptors)

  • Optic Nerve

    • Blind Spot

What is another component of the eye, yet not part of the 3 layers?

• Lens (Focuses light by changing its shape)

  • Ciliary Body + Ligaments

  • Posterior Chamber

    • Vitreous humor (gel-like material)

  • Anterior Chamber

    • Aqueous humor (gel-like material

Rod Cells vs Cone Cells

• Rod cells do not see colour but are best for night viewing because they react to very low light levels.

• Cone cells are for colour viewing.

  • Work best in good light and are found mostly in the centre of the retina in an area called the macula lutea, which provides the sharpest vision

• Signals from rods and cones via optic nerve to the brain, which interprets the image

What is Myopia?

• When the incoming light focuses before it gets to the back of the eye (nearsightedness)

• Long eyeball, bulgy lens

• Corrected by a Concave lens

What is Hyperopia?

• When the incoming light does not focus by the time it reaches the back of the eye (farsightedness)

• Short eyeball, flat lens

• Corrected by a Convex lens

What is Cataracts?

Loss of elasticity of the lens, followed by the denaturation of crystallins, making them less transparent

What is a detached retina?

• Separation of the pigmented layer and the photoreceptor layers of the retina

• Photoreceptor cells have no access to blood vessels

• Caused by trauma to the head

What is Glaucoma?

• Elevated pressure within the eye caused by a buildup of aqueous humor

  • Eventually causes damage to the retina

  • Vision loss if not treated

What is sense of Smell?

• The receptors for the sense of smell are in our nose. They line the upper portion of our nasal cavity.

• When odorant molecules bind to specific receptors in the nasal cavity a signal is sent to the brain

What is the area in the brain that receives odour signals?

Olfactory Cortex

What is sense of Touch?

• The receptors for the sense of touch are in our skin

• We can use any part of our bodies to feel the sense of touch - some body parts are more sensitive than others

What are the three main layers of skin?

• Epidermis (Protects)

• Dermis (Receptors)

  • Detect Light and Strong Pressure

  • Also detects pain and temperature.

• Hypodermis (Protection/Insulation)

What is sense of Taste?

• The receptors for the sense of taste are located in our tongue

• The receptor cells for taste in humans are organised into taste buds.

  • Tongue receptor cells are called Gustatory cells.

What the papillae in our tongues?

• Taste buds

  • Fungiform Papilla

  • Vallate Papilla

  • Foliate Papilla (Missing in adults humans)

• Non-taste Buds

  • Filliform Papilla (for grooming)

What are the cranial nerves associated with sense of taste?

• Facial ((VII) Anterior 2/3rd of the tongue) and Glossopharyngeal nerves ((IX) Posterior 1/3rd of the tongue)

  • Innervate the tongue, used for taste

• Vagus Nerve (X)

  • Carries taste information from the back part of the mouth

  • Used for heart rate, peristalsis, sweating, gag reflex, etc.

• Trigeminal Nerve (V)

  • Also innervates the tongue, but is used for pressure, temperature, and pain.

What is the inability to taste called? inability to smell?

Ageusia, Anosmia, respectively.

What is the sense of Hearing?

The receptors for the sense of hearing are in our ears

What does the Outer ear consist of?

• Outer Ear [Gathers sound and directs it to the eardrum]

  • Pinna

  • Auditory Canal

  • Eardrum (Tympanic Membrane)

What does the Middle ear consist of?

• Middle Ear [Transforms sound energy for the inner ear to receive as a signal]

  • Ossicle bones (Important for sound transformation and reduction of potentially harmful sounds

    • Malleus, Incus, Stapes

What does the Inner ear consist of?

• Inner Ear

  • Cochlea

    • Contains auditory receptor cells

    • Includes innervated hair cells bathed in fluid → Vibrations trigger a nerve signal

  • Semicircular canals

    • Also are connected to the Utricle and the Saccule

    • Fluid-filled tubes are responsible for balance and equilibrium

Describe the process of hearing.

• 1 - Sound waves cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate

• 2 - The three ossicle bones of the middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) transmit the vibrations to the cochlea

• 3 - The vibrations create pressure waves in the fluid in the cochlea → Hair cells bend.

• 4 - Message travels via auditory nerve to the brain.

What is Taxonomy?

A branch of biology that names, describes, and classifies species in groups.

What are the taxonomic ranks from most inclusive to least inclusive?

• Mnemonic Device

  • Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Spaghetti

• Domain

• Kingdom

• Phylum

• Class

• Order

• Family

• Genus

• Species

Who introduced binomial system of nomenclature?

• Carolus Linnaeus

• Swedish Taxonomist

• Lived in the 18th century

What is binomial system of nomenclature?

• The system of naming organisms by their genus and species. This is a universal system in Latin.

• Examples

  • Homo (Genus) sapiens (Species)

  • Drosophilia melanogaster (Fruit Fly)