AP US History: Founding, Conquest, and Colonial Systems

What was the primary method by which the first discoverers of America arrived from Asia?

They crossed a temporary land bridge from Siberia about 35,000 years ago.

What is Beringia?

A subcontinent bridging Asia and North America, characterized by ice-free, treeless grassland.

What types of large mammals thrived in Beringia's climate?

Mammoths, mastodons, bison, reindeer, horses, moose, caribou, and camels.

Which ancient Indian cultures in North America developed elaborate settlements?

The Pueblos, the Anasazi, and the Mississippian culture.

How did North American Indian societies compare to those in Central and South America?

They were less numerous and urbanized but equally diverse in culture and social organization.

What was a significant cultural achievement of the Old World prior to the Columbian Exchange?

The rise of universities and the beginning of the Renaissance.

What were some strengths of the Old World during the Columbian Exchange?

Military power, governance and trade frameworks, agricultural advancements, and intellectual achievements.

What were some weaknesses of the Old World during the Columbian Exchange?

Limited resources, disease outbreaks, and social/political instability.

What agricultural innovations did the New World contribute during the Columbian Exchange?

Farming techniques like raised fields, terracing, irrigation, and cultivation of crops like maize, beans, and potatoes.

What advanced knowledge did New World civilizations excel in?

Astronomy, mathematics, and engineering, evidenced by calendars and constructions like Mayan pyramids and Incan roads.

What is the Columbian Exchange?

The exchange of diseases, ideas, food, crops, and populations between the New World and the Old World following Columbus's voyage in 1492.

What was one major weakness of the New World before the Columbian Exchange?

The absence of horses.

What was the impact of diseases like the Black Death on Old World populations?

They significantly impacted populations and disrupted social structures.

What role did feudalism play in Old World societies?

It created social divisions and power struggles between nobles, the church, and the peasantry.

What were the climatic conditions of Beringia?

Warm summers and cold winters, suitable for large mammals.

How did the first discoverers adapt to their environment in North America?

They evolved a variety of cultures based on corn agriculture and hunting.

What is the significance of the Appalachian Mountains in relation to the Rockies?

The Appalachian Mountains are older than the Rockies.

What is an example of a mound-building culture in North America?

The Hopewell culture.

What was the primary agricultural crop that supported many Native American societies?

Corn (maize).

What was a key factor in the development of larger populations in the New World?

Agricultural innovations and techniques.

What did the Columbian Exchange facilitate between the New and Old Worlds?

The transfer of crops, livestock, and diseases.

Who was Vitus Bering and what is his connection to Beringia?

A Danish captain whose name was used for the Bering Straits.

What evidence suggests that the first Americans were hunter-gatherers?

They followed large mammals and lived in small bands.

What were the main vulnerabilities of the New World civilizations to European contact?

1. Lack of immunity to diseases like smallpox, measles, and typhus, leading to population declines. 2. Limited access to resources and technological developments such as ironworking and gunpowder. 3. Political instability due to wars between different groups.

What was Christopher Columbus's primary goal during his voyages?

To reach Cathay (China) and the Indies by sailing west.

What significant achievement did Columbus accomplish on his first voyage?

He navigated unknown waters under unprecedented conditions and prevented his crews from mutiny.

What misconception did Columbus maintain throughout his voyages?

He believed he had found islands off the Asian coast, close to the rich cities of Japan and China.

What motivated Columbus to seek funding for his voyages?

His need to obtain continuing funding from Spanish rulers who pressed for economic gains.

What were some key changes in Europe around 1500 that influenced exploration?

The Protestant Reformation, Catholic Counter-Reformation, the Italian Renaissance, the unification of Spain, and the reign of Henry VIII.

What prompted European exploration in the context of trade?

Europe's growing demand for Eastern luxuries and the desire to reduce the expense of those goods by finding new trade routes.

What were the early explorations that preceded Columbus's voyages?

Norse seafarers ventured to Newfoundland around 1000 AD, and Christian crusaders developed a taste for foreign goods.

What was the Treaty of Tordesillas?

A 1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing up the New World.

Who discovered the Pacific Ocean and when?

Vasco Nunez Balboa in 1513.

What was Hernán Cortés known for?

He conquered the Aztec Empire in Mexico.

What did Francisco Pizarro accomplish in 1532?

He crushed the Incas in Peru.

What was the significance of Ferdinand Magellan's expedition?

Although he was slain in the Philippines, one of his ships completed the first circumnavigation of the globe from 1519 to 1522.

What areas did Juan Ponce de León explore?

Florida, during the years 1513 and 1521.

What regions did Francisco Coronado explore?

The southwestern United States from 1540 to 1542.

What was the impact of Marco Polo's tales on European exploration?

His tales of China's riches encouraged the European spirit of travel and exploration.

How did the political instability in the New World affect its civilizations?

Wars between different groups weakened civilizations, making them vulnerable to outside forces.

What quote reflects Columbus's view on gold and success?

"Gold is a treasure, and he who possesses it does all he wishes to in this world, and succeeds in helping souls into paradise."

What was the nature of Columbus's understanding of his accomplishments?

He never fully understood the significance of discovering new continents and peoples.

What characterized Hernán Cortés's background?

He was born into a noble family but was a younger son who did not inherit extensive lands or wealth.

What was one of the challenges Columbus faced during his voyages?

Keeping his crews from mutiny, especially during long periods of calm when the ships were becalmed.

What did Columbus believe about the lands he discovered?

He believed he had found islands near Asia, despite knowing he was not in China or India.

What was a major factor in the European demand for Eastern luxuries?

The prohibitive cost of transport due to distance and Muslim middlemen.

What year did Hernán Cortés sail for Hispaniola?

1504

At what age did Hernán Cortés sail for Hispaniola?

Nineteen

What was the initial destination of Hernán Cortés's expedition?

Mexico

What was the size of Cortés's expedition to Mexico?

Eleven ships, five hundred soldiers, and sixteen horses.

Who was the governor of Cuba that initially commissioned Cortés?

Velazquez

What tactics did Cortés use to overcome Aztec resistance?

A combination of military, political, and psychological tactics.

What empire did Hernán Cortés gain through his conquests?

An empire larger than Spain.

What did Cortés's reports to King Charles V contain?

Fascinating detail, boasting, and exaggeration.

What health issue did Cortés face during his expedition to Honduras?

He ruined his health.

When did Hernán Cortés retire to his estate in Cuernavaca?

1528

What was the fate of Hernán Cortés upon returning to Spain?

He died a broken man.

Who was Moctezuma II?

The Aztec ruler who succumbed to Cortés's invasion of Mexico.

What was Moctezuma II's role in Aztec society?

He was a high priest and the tenth Aztec emperor.

What did Moctezuma II expand before Cortés arrived?

The Aztec realm.

What god was Moctezuma II particularly devoted to?

Huitzilpochtli.

What weakened Moctezuma's will to resist the Spanish invaders?

Pessimistic predictions from astrologers and readers of portents.

What happened to Moctezuma after he was seized by Cortés?

He was held under house arrest.

How did the people of Tenochtitlán react to Moctezuma when he appeared in public?

They showered him with stones.

What do many Aztecs believe about Moctezuma's death?

That the Spanish killed him.

What prophecy did Moctezuma believe regarding foreign rulers?

That he and his people were foreigners who came from distant parts.

What initial belief did Moctezuma have about Cortés?

That Cortés was a returning deity, Quetzalcoatl.

What does the Marine Hymn mention about Montezuma?

It references Montezuma in the line 'From the Halls of Montezuma to the Shores of Tripoli.'

What did the Portuguese and Spanish explorers do in the Americas?

They encountered and conquered much of the Americas and their Indian inhabitants.

What was the 'collision of worlds' and its impact?

It deeply affected Atlantic societies—Europe, the Americas, and Africa—leading to a new world in Latin America through disease, conquest, slavery, and intermarriage.

What role did the conquistadores play in North America?

They established small but permanent settlements, competing with French and English explorers.

What authority did the King of Spain have regarding conquistadores?

The King recognized their land claims and could allocate land and governmental authority as he saw fit.

What was the encomienda system?

A form of forced and unpaid labor used by the Spanish in their colonies, where conquistadores received land and laborers but had to pay taxes to the king.

What benefits were promised to laborers under the encomienda system?

They were promised military protection and the opportunity to convert to Christianity.

How did the encomienda system compare to the feudal system in Europe?

It was similar in that the King claimed land and allowed noblemen to manage it in exchange for taxes.

What led the Spanish to view indigenous populations as 'savage'?

Findings of cannibalism, human sacrifice, and pagan religions after toppling empires led to this conclusion.

What abuses occurred under the encomienda system?

Families were torn apart, hard labor conditions enforced, and severe punishments were meted out for small infractions.

What was the response of the King of Spain to indigenous rebellions?

He enacted laws designed to reform the encomienda system and curb abuses.

Who was Bartolomé de las Casas and what did he advocate for?

He was an advocate for Native Americans, arguing they were free and equal men deserving the same rights as Spaniards.

What was the Valladolid Debate of 1550 about?

It featured Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda arguing for colonists' property rights and rationalizing Spanish treatment of Indians as 'natural slaves,' while Las Casas criticized the encomienda system.

What was Popé's Rebellion?

A revolt in 1680 by the Pueblo Indians against Spanish settlers, resulting in the destruction of Catholic churches and the killing of priests.

What is the significance of intermarriage between conquistadores and Indian women?

It contributed to the creation of a mestizo culture in Latin America.

How did slavery change with the arrival of the Portuguese and Spanish?

Slavery transformed from a localized practice to a global, large-scale, racially-based system, primarily driven by European demand for labor.

What were the characteristics of slavery in Africa before European colonization?

It was often based on debt, war captives, or crime, and status was not typically inherited.

What was the Spanish Black Legend?

An unfavorable image of Spain and Spaniards, accusing them of cruelty and intolerance, prevalent in non-Spanish and Protestant historians' works.

Is the negative view of the Spanish as harsh conquerors valid?

It is debated whether this view is accurate or just another version of English propaganda regarding the Spanish role in the Americas.