History of Criminological Theory Exam II

Henry Goddard: Basis of Fame/Infamy

advanced claim on highly dubious evidence that people with subormal intelligence are "feebleminded" and therefore prone to deviance.

Advocated for extreme institutionalizing them for the eugenics program and sterilization to not reproduce.

He omitted the criticism that he was wrong.

Weakness was not using control groups.

Henry Goddards Bio Sketch: birth

Small town in Maine, only child in white quaker family. father died when 9. Mother remarried a missionary, shipped him to a private boarding school.

Henry Goddard: Education

B.A. Haverford College, 1887
M.A. (math) Haverford College in
1889
PHD. (Psychology) Clark College,
In 1899

Henry Goddard: Critical Early Life Experiences #1

Educator for most of his life serving as both
teacher and principal in private schools, as well as, later a college professor at West Chester State Normal School, PA. and Ohio State
University. He retired from OSU after teaching there for 16 years in 1938 at age 72.

Henry Goddard: Critical Early Life Experiences #2

Served as Director of Ohio Bureau of
Juvenile Research for four yrs. (1918-1922), his most important research position was as Director of the Vineland Training School in Vineland, N.J. where he worked for six years from 1912 to 1918.

Henry Goddard: Key Noted Works

The Kallikak Family: The Study of
heredity of Feeble-Mindedness (1912).
Feeble-Mindedness: Its Causes and
Consequences (1913).
The Criminal Imbecile: An Analysis of
Three Remarkable Murder Cases (1915)

Henry Goddard: Basic Assumptions behind key ideas: Inherited deviance, what kinds?

Assumed that subnormal intelligence, which for him, was an inherited trait, caused people to engage in various forms of maladaptive behavior, which among other things, included various forms of criminal conduct, alcoholism,
and pauperism.

Henry Goddard: Basic Assumptions behind key ideas: Mendel Recessive Gene

Believed that Mendel law of heredity and recessive trait. Inherited two genes, one from mom and dad. Believed that subnormal intelligence was a recessive gene, this meant that both of your parents must carry a recessive gene for intelligence for you to be born
with a subnormal level of intelligence.

Henry Goddard: free will or determinist?

a psychological positivists, also assumed that level of intelligence was amenable to quantification, and thereby capable
of precise measurement.

Henry Goddard: Basic Assumptions: the psychological measures

people who suffered from different
degrees of subnormal intelligence
could be identified through the use
of psychological test that measured
intelligence. It became an important
quest in his life to devise a means
to determine the degree of people’s
intelligence

Henry Goddard: different levels of Feeblemindedness

lowest to highest, he referred
1. morons 2. imbeciles 3. idiots

Henry Goddard’s Key Ideas; origins of the intelligence test

Goddard’s main concern was
with feeblemindedness and since he
was a positivists, he set out to find
a way to subject feeblemindedness to
precise measurement. Instead of
inventing his own intelligence test,
he borrowed the test that French
psychologist, Alfred Binet and his
colleague, Theodore Simon, a
physician, developed in for the
specific purpose of identifying
students in the Paris school system. Made english manual.

Henry Goddard Key ideas: the measurement

in 1912, the psychologist,
William Stern, divided people’s
scores on Binet/Simon test designed
to measure their mental age by their
chronological age, it produced a
quotient, the end result of the
division.

Henry Goddard Key Ideas: the example of measurement

people whose chronological and mental ages were the same, always scored 100, which
was average; people whose mental age
was higher than their chronological
age always scored over a 100, which
was above average; and for people,
whose mental ages were lower than
their chronological ages, their scores were always less than a 100

Henry Goddard: Criticisms of Ideas, misuse of test

Goodard misused the Binet/Simon’s
intelligence test. It cannot be
emphasized too much that they
developed their test on the
assumption that intelligence was
largely due to “nurture” or our social
environment, and not the result of
genes or "nature,” as Goddard had
wrongly assumed.

Henry Goddard: Criticisms of Ideas, misuse of test and personal use

Goddard's purpose was not to use the test to determine who needed remedial education, but for the more sinister motive of determining who
needed to be prevented from reproducing and institutionalized. From Goddard’s view point
remedial education was pointless because feeblemindedness was an inherited trait, which no amount of remedial education could
significantly change.

Henry Goddard Criticisms: Junk Science

Secondly, Goddard’s research was junk. he did not use sound statistical methods in drawing his
conclusions about feeblemindedness and
crime. For example, he never used a
control group, which even Lombroso
used. He also did not use large enough
and non-biased sample of his target
group, his so-called feebleminded individual. used as the basis for determining the score
necessary to declare someone
feebleminded merely the highest I.Q.

Henry Goddard Criticisms: Junk Science results

results from several later major studies directly
contradict Godard’s conclusions. Studies from the Army’s psychological corps demonstrated that over 50% of the World War I draftees had mental ages of 12 or less. It has also been found that I.Q. scores are virtually
identical to the scores on reading
comprehension tests.

W.E.B DuBois: Basis of Fame/Infamy

First, ethnographic study of a major American urban area focused most of his attention on Blacks living in seventh ward of city but did a
survey of Blacks living in the entire city. Done from a sociological perspective that included
examination of black crime problem.

W.E.B DuBois: Birthplace

Born in Great Barrington, MA. to mixed-race parents, mother was Dutch African; father was French African. When he was 2, his father
abandoned their family and his mother supported them by working odd jobs and with
the help from the well-to-do whites

W.E.B DuBois: Education

B.A. Fisk University, 1988
B.A. Harvard University, 1890
M.A. Harvard University, 1891
Ph.d Harvard University, 1895 (first Black PH.D)

W.E.B DuBois: Critical Early Life Experiences affecting Ideas, attending integrated school

While attending an
integrated high school in
Great Barrington, he honed
his journalistic skills by
serving as a correspondent
for the New York Globe.

W.E.B DuBois: Critical Early Life Experiences affecting Ideas, Editor

Served as the editor of the Fisk Herald, while attending Fisk University in Nashville, where he obtained his first B.A. degree.

W.E.B DuBois: Critical Early Life Experiences affecting Ideas, Harvard Education

Education at Harvard University, where he came
into contact with the famous American philosophers, William James and George
Santayana, and became first to recieve Ph.d

W.E.B DuBois: Critical Early Life Experiences affecting Ideas, Harvard Education Grant

Grant from Harvard’s Slater
Fund enabling him to study
at the University of Berlin
from 1892-1894, where he
came into contact with Max
Weber and Gustav Von
Smoller

W.E.B DuBois: Critical Early Life Experiences affecting Ideas, Booker T. Washington feud

Feud with Booker T. Washington, Superintendent of Tuskegee Institute, over the best strategy for improving the lives of blacks in America. Washington, a former slave, advocated a less confrontational approach than Du Bios, neither of whose parents were slaves. Du Bios spurned Washington’s offer to work as researcher at his institute, and without
working as a ghostwriter. Executive Board Member from and Editor of its magazine
Crisis from 1910-1934. He resigned in 1934 after a dispute with Executive Board over the direction of Crisis had taken under his
editorship.

W.E.B DuBois: Critical Early Life Experiences affecting Ideas, NAACP

co-founder of NAACP, which was founded in 1909, and where he served as an

W.E.B DuBois: Critical Early Life Experiences affecting Ideas, Professor @ Atlanta Uni.

served as professor of
history and economics at
Atlanta University from 1897
to 1910. In 1910, he left to
become editor of NAACP’s
magazine, Crisis, a position
that he remained in until
1934, after becoming
embroiled in a dispute with
the executive board over the
more radical direction

W.E.B DuBois: Critical Early Life Experiences affecting Ideas, Returning Professor @ University

1934, he returned to Atlanta University as
professor and chair of its department of sociology. After working there for a decade, he retired in 1944 because of an ongoing
dispute with its new administration over not
supporting his efforts to strengthen the sociology
department. His departure from academics no doubt negatively affected his becoming more better known as one of America’s early
prominent sociologists

W.E.B DuBois Key Noted Works:

The Philadelphia Negro: A
Social Study,1899
Black Reconstruction in
America:1860-1880, 1935

W.E.B DuBois Basic Assumptions behind key works: the social and economic status affects life

social and economic conditions, under which people live, are the two primary factors that
cause crime and poverty in urban
areas. Thus, it may be inferred that
the roots of moral depravity spring
from material deprivation, not innate
badness or psychopathology.

W.E.B DuBois Nature of Key Ideas: “the negro problem”

argued “they arise from the peculiar
history and condition of the American
Negro in the case of crime in urban areas.

W.E.B DuBois: Lack of Seed Money/ Land Grants Following Emancipation

“The first of peculiarity the Negro is slavery and
emancipation of the Negro . . . The first effect of emancipation was that of any sudden revolution: a strain upon the strength and resources of the Negro, moral,
economic, and physical, which drove
many to the wall.” Thus, the slaves
who were freed after their emancipation following the civil war had to start their new lives with few tangible sustainability, such food, shelter, and jobs, to sustain themselves and their families.

W.E.B DuBois: Intense Competition between White peasant immigrants and Freed Black
Slaves for Jobs and Decent Housing

“the second great peculiarity of the situation
of Negros is the fact of immigration: the great numbers of raw recruits who have time to time
precipitated themselves upon the Negros of the city and shared their small industrial opportunities and finally whether [Negros]
failed or succeeded in the strong competition, they themselves must soon prepare to face a new immigration.”

W.E.B DuBois: Virulent Racial Prejudice

there “must be added a third as
possibility greater in influence
than the other two, namely the
environment in which the Negro finds
himself.” The most important
feature of this social environment
that it is brimming with a virulent
“color prejudice,” which expresses
itself in the feeling “that the Negro
is less than an American and ought not
be more than he is.”

Thus, the virulent “color prejudice”
that blacks unexpectedly encountered
after their exodus from the South and
arrival in American Northern cities
not only greatly disheartened them,
but also hampered both their ability
to find gainful full-time employment and housing

W.E.B DuBois: Criticism of work, the undertheorized studies

While he discovered important findings from his
meticulous and innovative studies, he did not provide nearly as well- developed explanations of these findings as their importance
merited. Since Du Bios had received training as a historian, it is not surprising that his careful
attention to details trumped his construction of theory.

W.E.B DuBois: Criticism of work, the elitist

criticized for being an elitist, which was based
on among other things, his penchant
for using highbrow English, for his emphasis on developing the “talent tenth” of African-Americans to serve as their leadership and
dislike for the “Black masses.”
(Watts)

W.E.B DuBois: Criticism of work, Elijah Anderson

study of Philadelphia, during the
early phase of Du Bois’ career, he
was naïve about the evils of
capitalism and the critical role
that it plays in generating and
maintaining racism in a society:
“Much of what happened in the
Philadelphia Negro is largely a
result of the interaction of racism
and market forces. It might be said
that the youthful Du Bios greatest
failing in . . . was not having
appreciated how wedded the
capitalist enterprise was and is to
exploiting market forces to their
fullest without regard for human
causalities . . .Overtime, however,
Du Bois came to realize that the
capitalists’ problem was not so
much ignorance, but rather
unbridled self-interest within the
context of white supremacy.

W.E.B DuBois: Criticism of work, Material Explanations

predict amount of crime that people who suffer from material deprivations should commit and
under predict the amount of crime
that people who suffer from no wants should commit. In other words, it is just as unlikely that
Most indigent people commit serious crimes, as it is. wealthy people refrain from
committing them. Thus, something else must be going on or is involved here than only material
deprivation alone. This material.
Deprivation appears to be strongly
associated with, but not the direct cause of serious street crime.

Edwin Sutherland: Basis for claim to fame/infamy

Authored Classic research monograph White Collar Crime (1949) and coined the term, “white collar crime.”

Defined field of criminology as the
study of the three C's: 1.
Criminalization, 2.Criminality, and
3. Corrections

identified the defining characteristics of a
professional thief.

Edwin Sutherland: Birthplace/longest residence

born into a white protestant family of eight children in Gibbon, Nebraska, where he lived for 1st decade. Lived in midwest most of his life. Lived in chicago for a bit while beign researcher.

Edwin Sutherland: Education

PH.D. in Sociology and Political Economy from University of Chicago in 1913

Edwin Sutherland: Critical Life Experiences affecting ideas, his father

Father, a historian and president of a small, religious Liberal Arts College, was a career academician, who served as a role model, for his children. Very modest yet cultural.

Edwin Sutherland: Critical Life Experiences affecting ideas, teaching position

accepting a teaching position in the University of
Illinois’ department of Sociology, the chair of his
Department, who also served as an acquisition editor for Lippincott publishing house, offered him the opportunity to publish a textbook on
criminology, which he titled, Principles of Criminology.

Edwin Sutherland: Critical Life Experiences affecting ideas, acceptance of research position

In 1930, Sutherland accepted a research position in the University Chicago’s department of sociology, where he completed his book on professional thief.

Edwin Sutherland: Critical Life Experiences affecting ideas, the switch of Unis

In 1935, after Chicago refused to grant Sutherland tenure, which was a big mistake, he accepted the position as director of University of Indiana’s Institute of Criminology and head of its newly created department of criminology. Stayed until 1950.

Edwin Sutherland: Key Noted Works

Principles of Criminology (1924,
1934, 1939, 1947).
The Professional Thief (1937).
White Collar Crime (1949)

Edwin Sutherland: Basic Assumptions behind Key Ideas

Normative conflict is the major source
of crime in diverse modern societies
in which members of all groups do not
believe in same basic norms and
values. Speaks on condition where members of one group by following their norms and
values break laws that are based on
the norms and values of another group
in same the society

Edwin Sutherland: Key Ideas, The Theory of Differential Association

based on two basic ideas, which are
directly derived from its main assumption of normative conflict on which it rests:

1. differential process (micro explanation of criminality. It explains how normative conflict
operates to make one particular
individual become a criminal and
another one not to become one.)

2. differential social organization (The
The latter idea provides a macro explanation. It explains how normative
conflict operates to make one group in
society have higher crime rate than
another group.)

the crime rate of a group merely represents
the number of members of a group who
commit crimes and the frequency with
which they commit them.

Edwin Sutherland: Key Ideas, The Theory of Differential Association 9 Propositions (1-5)

1. Criminality is learned, not
inherited.
2. The learning of criminality
takes place during social
interaction.
3. The learning of criminal
behavior mainly transpires
during social interaction in
“primary groups.”
4. The learning of criminality
involves 1. techniques for
breaking the law, and 2. pro-
and anti-criminal attitudes
toward breaking the law.
5. Pro-and anti-criminal attitudes
are learned from defining laws
as favorable or unfavorable to
violation. In diverse, modern
societies both types of
attitudes are prevalent among
the members of its different
groups. king

Edwin Sutherland: Key Ideas, The Theory of Differential Association 9 Propositions (6-9)

6.A person becomes a criminal
because his attitudes toward
breaking the law are stronger
than his attitudes against
breaking the law, which operate
as “counteracting forces.”
Sutherland labelled this the
main principle behind the
operation of the differential
process.
7. Contact with pro- and anti-
criminal attitudes vary in terms
of 4 variables: a. Priority, b.
Intensity, c. frequency, and d.
Duration.
8. The process of learning
criminality from contact with
pro-criminal and isolation from
anti-criminal attitudes is the
same as learning any other form
of conduct. Thus, differential
association process can explain
both why people become criminals
and law abiding citizens.
9. While criminality is an
expression of general needs and
values, it cannot be explained
by them because general needss.

Edwin Sutherland: Key Ideas, Differential Social Organization

Depending on their conduct norms,
different groups can be organized
for or against criminality. Some
groups have conduct norms that
support or condone breaking the
law; whereas other groups have
conduct norms that oppose or
condemn breaking the law.
Aggregate factors, such as social
class, sex, race, religion,
marital status, nativity, etc

Edwin Sutherland: Key Ideas, Differential Social Organization, D.A.Q

D.A.Q. = differential association
quotient. It may be viewed as a
fraction in which the numerator
equals the priority, intensity,
frequency and duration of pro-
criminal attitudes and the denominator equals the priority, intensity, frequency and duration
of anti-criminal attitudes.

Key Ideas: Sutherland’s Notion of “White Collar
Criminal”

A violation of the criminal law by
a person of the upper socioeconomic
class in the course of his
occupational activities in
accordance with their normal
business ideals and practices

Edwin Sutherland: Key Ideas, Empirical Importance

Members of upper socioeconomic classes are no less criminal than those from lower
socio-economic classes.
Nevertheless, the former represents
a much bigger threat to society than
the latter.

Edwin Sutherland: Key Ideas, “Professional Theft:” Four defining characteristics of:

1. Stealing only full-time job
2. “Capers” fully planned out
from beginning to end in
advance.
3. Manipulation rather than
strong-armed tactics used to
gain control over victim’s
material resources.
4. In searching for new victims,
perpetrator moves from town to
town, although maintains a
home-base in same town.
Based on his study of Chic
Conwell’s life as a
professional thief, whose
home-base was Chicago.

Edwin Sutherland: Critiques, Free will or determinist:

a cultural determinist: believed norms and values determine people’s conduct: if Differential
Association Quotient is greater
than 1, then people will ipso facto
engage in criminality. Anti-free
will. Argued that if people really
had free-will, science of human
conduct would be impossible.

Edwin Sutherland: Critiques of the differential association quotient

is a clever metaphor, it is impossible to
precisely calculate for any particular individual

Edwin Sutherland: power plays in normative conflict

does not explicitly take into account the role that power plays in normative conflict, i.e. in deciding
whose group’s norms are drawn on in
creating the laws and whose group’s
norms are ignored in its creation.

Edwin Sutherland: dismissive of criminal conduct

does not take into account the part that the situation plays an criminal conduct over and beyond merely providing the opportunity for
a person whose D.A.Q. exceeds one to
express itself.

William Sheldon: Basis for Fame/Infamy

Developed one of the most intriguing theories about physique types and personalities types and their relation to criminality. One of our most
memorable members of the school of “Constitutional Psychologists.”

William Sheldon: Birthplace/Longest Location

Born in Warwick, Rhode Island into Elite WASP, New England family, who lived an idyllic existence on small farm

William Sheldon: Education

Ph.d in Psychology, University of
Chicago.

M.D., University of Chicago

William Sheldon: Critical Early or Later Experiences Affect ideas, the father

Father, who was a member of leisure class, occupied himself by serving as judge of dogs and conducting naturalistic studies of animals, especially the study and classification of
different types of moths, on which he published a book. Love for taxonomy

William Sheldon: Critical Early or Later Experiences Affect ideas, Brilliant Student

Obtained B.A. at Brown at 20. After
serving a short stint in Army, obtained M.A. at 1923, and a PH.D at 25. After working as a professor of psychology at University of Wisconsin, he enrolled in medical school, obtaining his M.D at 35 in 1933.

William Sheldon: Critical Early or Later Experiences Affect ideas, accepted a
position as a researcher

1938, he accepted a position as a researcher in
Harvard’s departments of physical anthropology and psychology, where he came under the influence of the constitutional psychologist
,Ernest Hooton, who authored, Crime and Man
(1931)

William Sheldon: Key Noted

Varieties of Human Physique (1940).
Varieties of Human Temperament (1942).
Varieties of Delinquent Behavior (1949).

William Sheldon: Basic Assumptions of Key Ideas, peoples physical constitution

People’s physical constitutions, i.e., their bodily or physique types, were responsible for their
personalities, which, in turn, determined whether or not, they engaged in criminality

William Sheldon: The Nature of the Key Ideas, Basis of Physiques and temperaments

their physiques and temperaments, Shelden divided people into three basic types: endomorphs, mesomorphs, and ectomorphs.

William Sheldon: The Nature of the Key Ideas, Endomorph

Physique type: Endomorphic: predominant
tissue in embryonic tissue is endoderm,
the inner tissue from which arises the
digestive tissue. High body fat/low
muscle ratio, small boned, short chubby
limbs, large waisted.
Temperament type: Viscerotonic: good
natured, extrovert, relaxed posture.

William Sheldon: The Nature of the Key Ideas, Mesomorph

Physique type: mesomorphic: predominate
embryonic tissue is mesoderm: big boned,
broad shoulders, barrel chess, low fat/
high muscle ratio, thick thighs and big
biceps, but small waist.
Temperament type: somotonic: dynamic,
assertive, aggressive posture

William Sheldon: The Nature of the Key Ideas, Ectomorph

Physique type: ectomorphic: predominate
embryonic tissue arises from ectoderm:
small boned, lean, thin, fragile body,
narrow shoulders and waist, low fat and
muscle ratio and small waisted.
Temperament type: Cerebrotonic:
introverted, reserved, hypochondriac,
highly sensitive, quiet.

William Sheldon: The Nature of the Key Ideas, Somatotyping

refers to the technique that Shelden devised to determine the type of physique that people had. It was a three digit system for rating an
people’s physique type on which they
could receive a score from 1-7.

represented their score for endomorphic body; the second digit represented their score for a
mesomorphic body; and final digit
represented their score for ectomorphic body.

William Sheldon: The Nature of the Key Ideas, Somatotyping, wrist

A simple wrist test was devised to determine body type using the forefinger and thumb to measure the wrist.
 If thumb and forefinger
barely touch = mesomorph
 If thumb and fore finger
overlap = ectomorph
 If thumb and forefinger do
not touch = endomorph

William Sheldon: The Nature of the Key Ideas, Early Findings on Mesomorphs and Delinquency

Shelden presented findings from
a study in which he compared the scores
from somatotyping 200 young male
residents from the Hayden Goodwill Inn,
Boston juvenile reformatory, with
scores from somatotyping of 200 Male

Reformatory residents: 3.5/4.6/2.7

Harvard students: 3.2/3.8/3.4

William Sheldon: The Nature of the Key Ideas, Later Findings on Mesomorphs and Delinquency

more vigorous study of the impact
of mesomorphy on delinquency in which
they matched 500 proven delinquents and
500 proven non-delinquents on race-
ethnicity, age, neighborhood, and I.Q.
They found that approximately 60% of the
persistent delinquents, while only 30%
of the non-delinquents were mesomorphs.

William Sheldon: critique main criticisms of work, being a med doctor

Sheldon, who also became a medical doctor, was a biological determinists. Why?
Because his physique types were for him produced from an individual’s genes. Unlike
Lombroso, however, stubbornly remained one over his entire career, whereas Lombroso
switched to a multi-factor determinist. continued to dismiss the notion that free will operated in human conduct, including criminality.

William Sheldon: critique main criticisms of work, ignored environment

that the environment, especially diet, exercise, and injection of the steroids can
significantly impact people’s body type, which means that biology, or more precisely
genes, do not solely determine
our body type.

William Sheldon: critique main criticisms of work, body types change

Our body types do not remain the same over our entire lives, but changes over the normal
biological maturation process from infancy to adolescence to adulthood to old age

William Sheldon: critique main criticisms of work, social perception

Evidence supporting
Sheldon’s theory, at best,
is inconclusive. While there
may exist a statistical
association between being a
mesomorph, especially one who
has psychological problems and
becoming a street criminal,
it may be due more to social
perception than to innate
factors. Despite this, the
notion mesomorphy, which
is highly reminiscent of
Lombroso’s atavistic man
continues to pop
up in the criminological
literature, most recently in
Herrenstien and Wilson’s, Crime
and Human Nature (1985).