Unit 0 AP Psychology

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from the lecture notes on methods, biases, sampling, ethics, and statistics.

Cultural norms

The shared expectations and rules guiding behavior within a social group.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that confirms one's preexisting beliefs while downplaying contradictory evidence.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after an event, that one could have predicted it; the 'knew-it-all-along' effect.

Overconfidence

A cognitive bias where people overestimate knowledge or abilities, often underestimating risks.

Experiment

A research method that actively manipulates an independent variable to observe effects on a dependent variable, enabling causal conclusions; random assignment is key.

Random assignment

Allocating participants to groups by chance to reduce bias and attribute differences to the manipulation.

Case Study

An in-depth examination of a single subject or small group.

Correlational Study

Assesses the relationship between two or more variables without manipulation; identifies associations but not causation.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines data from multiple studies on the same topic to draw stronger conclusions.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in real-world settings without manipulation; often a field study.

Hypothesis

A proposed, testable explanation about a relationship between variables.

Falsifiable Hypothesis

A hypothesis that can be proven false through observation or experiment.

Operational Definition

A precise description of how a concept/variable is measured or manipulated in a study.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if findings hold across participants and settings.

Independent Variable

The factor researchers actively manipulate to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The outcome or response measured in a study.

Confounding Variable

A variable other than the IV that could influence the DV, potentially biasing results.

Sample

A subset of individuals from a population used in a study.

Population

All individuals who share characteristics of interest; the larger group from which samples are drawn.

Representative Sample

A sample that mirrors the characteristics of the population.

Convenience Sample

A sample selected for easy access, which may introduce bias.

Random Sample

A sample in which each member of the population has an equal chance of selection.

Sampling Bias

A situation where the sample is not representative of the population, biasing results.

Generalizability

The extent to which study results apply to the broader population.

Experimental Group

Participants exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

Participants not exposed to the independent variable; baseline for comparison.

Placebo

A fake treatment with no known effect that can sometimes produce real responses.

Single-Blind Procedure

Participants unaware of their group; researchers know, reducing participant bias.

Double-Blind Procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments; helps reveal placebo effects.

Experimenter Bias

Researchers' expectations inadvertently influence results.

Social Desirability Bias

Participants respond to appear favorable, not truthfully.

Qualitative Research

Research that collects non-numerical data to understand subjective experiences.

Structured Interview

All participants are asked the exact same questions in the same order.

Quantitative Research

Research using numerical data and statistical methods.

Likert Scales

Psychometric scales measuring agreement from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

Representation

Mental image or concept standing in for something; a cognitive model.

Peer Review

Experts evaluate research quality before publication.

Directionality Problem

In correlational research, it's unclear which variable causes the other.

Third Variable Problem

A hidden variable may influence both measured variables, confounding results.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables.

Causation

A direct cause-and-effect relation between variables.

Survey

A method where participants answer questions to reveal attitudes or behaviors; largely quantitative.

Self-Report Bias

Participants inaccurately report thoughts or behaviors due to social desirability or poor self-awareness.

Median

The middle value in a sorted data set.

Skewness / Skewed Distribution

Asymmetrical distribution where tails are longer on one side (positive right-tail, negative left-tail).

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two distinct peaks.

Standard Deviation

Average distance of scores from the mean; a measure of spread.

Regression Toward the Mean

Extreme scores tend to move toward the mean on subsequent measurements.

Normal Curve

Bell-shaped distribution where scores cluster around the mean.

Z-score

A standard score indicating how many standard deviations a score is from the mean.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores below a given score in a distribution.

Range

Difference between highest and lowest scores.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a data set.

Mode

The most frequent value in a data set.

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean, median, and mode.

Variation

Differences among individuals in a population.

IRB / Institutional Review Board

Committee that reviews research proposals to protect participants.

Informed Consent

Providing enough information for participants to decide about participation.

Informed Assent

Agreement from someone not legally able to consent (e.g., a minor), with parental permission when needed.

Confidentiality

Protecting participants' privacy; no identifiable data shared without consent.

Anonymity

Data cannot identify participants; identities are unknown.

Deception

Deliberately misleading participants about the true purpose or procedures of a study.

Research Confederates

People secretly working with the experimenter as actors to influence responses.

Debrief

Informing participants after a study about its true purpose and procedures.

Effect Size

Strength or magnitude of the relationship between two variables.

Statistical Significance

Results unlikely due to chance, typically p < 0.05.