Motivation Ch.1

Basic Research

driven by basic curiosity, used to build general theories, broad scope

Applied Research

uses basic research to solve a specific problem

Science in the U.S. currently

29.8% is the science budget, other nations taking research more seriously, losing scientists and labs

Method or logic of inquiry

science

Personality, attitudes, and learning are:

intervening variabless

The textbook defines this concept as "the forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior." What is the concept being defined in this way?

motivation

What is an advantage of sexual reproduction according to the textbook?

greater genetic diversity

From the textbook: "individuals who inherited genes that give them an advantage in the environment have a better chance of living long enough to reproduce."

natural selection

The textbook describes motivation as a "performance variable." What does this mean?

motivation influences when behavior is present

Motivation relates to internal and external factors that modulate behavior. Which of the following concepts refers to external motivational factors?

incentive

Which of the following refers to an intervening variable?

drive

Which of the following parts of the CNS is most closely related to emotion and motivation?

limbic system

Related to humor?

arousal

VTA neurons involved in reward send axons to the

nucleus accumbens & prefrontal cortex

Choice is a concept most closely associated with:

incentive

Brain areas related to reward:

nucleus accumbens

What is the basis for mental continuity

common brain structures, common hormones, & common behaviors

Scientific method in psych

1. identify a problem

2. postulate (come up with) a hypothesis

3. design an observational situation/experiment/descriptive study

4. conduct the research & collect the data

5. test the hypothesis statistically

6. communicate results → what are the implications → peer review

Descriptive Research Steps

1. phenomenon

2. observation/looking at previous research

3. recording data

4. define problem (previous theory)

Types of Descriptive Research

case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, & interviews

Experimental Research Steps

1. hypothesis

2. experimental design

3. experimental observations & analysis of data

4. theoretical integration

Scientific Method in Psych John Green Vid Key Points

-replication is key

-random assignment

-experimental & control groups

-if you cannot assign a variable, you cannot draw causal inferences

-true experiment must have: at least 2 groups/conditions, a testable hypothesis, & manipulation of independent variable

Objectives of Science - Description

objective portrayal of phenomenon & identification of relevant variables

Objectives of Science - Explanation

causal knowledge of phenomenon & applying a general principle to specific instance

Objectives of Science - Prediction

ability to anticipate the occurrence of an event

Objectives of Science - Control

comparison groups, elimination of extraneous variables, & manipulation of causal factors

Hard Determinism

cause → effect & stimulus → stimulus response

example: pupil reflex to light

Soft Determinism

anticipated consequence → choice of alternate options

example: julius caesar making the choice to invade rome

Without Determinism?

there can be NO scientific studies of motivation/emotion

Intervening variables are:

-the “in between” of independent and dependent variables

-the middle step

-cannot be directly observed

-examples: motivation, emotion, personality, attitudes, learning, drive

3 Stages of Psych Theories

1. discovery of regularities guided by hypothesis-testing

2. postulating intervening variables, their properties, and their relationships to IVs and DVs

3. testing novel predictions derived logically from theory

Textbook: Motivation is NOT an off/on switch but rather:

-a constant flow of behavior that can be directed in many different ways

Textbook: What is Angie’s Problem:

-her problem is anxiety

Textbook: Genetic Predispositions:

-whether they get expressed depends on experiences had

Textbook: Motivation & Intensity

higher motivation = higher intensity

Textbook: Motivation & Persistence

highly motivated behavior = more persistence

Textbook: Does motivation help us explain behavior?

-yes!

-helps explain why certain behavior occurs in some situation but not others

-increases ability to understand & predict behavior

Textbook: How is motivation measured?

-almost never measured directly

-manipulate stimulus condition → then measure behavior in form of response

-example: starved rat put in a maze with food at the end

Textbook: Why is Motivation a Performance Variable?

when motivation is present, behavior is performed and when motivation is not present, behavior is not performed

Textbook: Activation

-activating property of motivation

-easily seen in production of behavior

-persistence

Textbook: Vigor of Responding

-rate of action

-does not always mean high motivation

Textbook: Directionality

-index of motivational state

-sometimes not clear

Textbook: Nomothetic Analysis

-how things are similar

-general laws applicable to wide range of situations

Textbook: Idiographic Analysis

-how people differ

-what makes each person unique

Textbook: Mechanistic

assumes that changes in specific factors activate circuits that then motivate organism to engage in behavior

Textbook: Cognitive Approach

assumes that manner in which info in interpreted influences motivation states

Textbook: Physiological Analysis

-mostly with animals

-electrodes or chemicals to stimulate rat’s brain

-lesion/damage or remove portion of brain to see effect

-neurons recorded through EEG

-PET scans: measures metabolic brain activity

-MRI: visualizes brain

-fMRI: both visualize & detect brain metabolism

Textbook: Con of Using Physiological Analysis

lack of consistency when different physiological experimental techniques are used

Textbook: Individual Anaylsis

-unique to the individual organism
-animals are deprived in studies

-humans are stimulated with need for acheivment

-Bandura’s bobo dolls - some motivated behaviors are learned through observation

Textbook: Social Analysis

-behavior is influenced by social situational factors (ex. in a classroom or a party)

-also influenced by presence of others

-conformity

Textbook: Philosophical Analysis Negative View:

motivation is an aversive state that behavior seeks to overcome

Textbook: Philosophical Analysis Positive View

-humanist psychologists offer positive view

-behavior directed towards self-actualization → positive state to push people to all that they can become

Textbook: Physiological Analysis of Angie’s Problem

-possible genetic predisposition

-sensitivity to arousing stimulation/overactive sympathetic nervous system

-possible imbalance of neurotransmitters that increases anxiety

Textbook: Individual Analysis of Angie’s Problem

-possibly learned anxiety

-example: embarrassed by teacher, so now all school situations make her anxious

Textbook: Social Analysis of Angie’s Problem

critical and competitive family make her anxious to perform

Textbook: Philosophical Analysis of Angie’s Problem

-Freud says: anxiety is result of pent-up desire

-Humanist psychologists say: lack of positive regard (ex. loved only if behaving correctly)

Textbook: Authors’ Bias

-no one theory can explain motivation

-motivation is overdetermined

Textbook: Instincts, Emotions, Thoughts

-William James emphasize these 3 components

-all 3 interact with each other

Textbook: Mate selection Parental Investment Model:

women: should be attracted to men who possess resources to provide for them and their potential children because women have a larger investment in their offspring than men do

Textbook: Mate Selection - Why do men engage in behavior that displays their resources?

-resource accumulation is important for attracting women

ex. socioeconomic status, intelligence, character

Textbook: Reproductive Value

-youthfulness, health, physical appearance, and attractiveness

-ex. women engage in behaviors that enhance attractiveness

Textbook: Female Sexual Strategies

-females have limited # of ova

-takes time & effort to invest in survival of offspring

-select mate who provides for offspring w/ greatest chance of survival

Textbook: Male Sexual Strategies

-less concerned with running out of genetic packets

-mate with as many females as possible to pass genetic info

Textbook: Sexual Selection

-occurs when there is competition for mates

-choice usually made by females

-mate choice more important for female

-males face selection pressure

Textbook: Natural Selection

-environment influences progression of genetic change

-influence on viability, fertility, fecundity

Textbook: Natural Selection - Viability

whether a gene that expresses certain behavior will increase likelihood of eventual reproduction

-ex. chicks crying from distress

Textbook: Natural Selection - Fertility

mating success/mating rituals

Textbook: Natural Selection - Fecundity

-capability to produce offspring

-does not always mean they’ll survive

Textbook: Evolution

-progressive change of organisms across time

-most stable and able to adapt will survive

Textbook: Higher Motives?

-self actualization (only 1% achieve according to Maslow)

-meaningfulness is a significant motive

Textbook: Energy

many theories assume some source of energy drives behavior

Textbook: Learning

-modeling: motives learned through observation

-incentives have role in controlling goal-directed behavior

Textbook: Attribution Theory

emphasizes role of cognition in interpretation of others’ and our own behavior

Textbook: The Activation of Motivation Early Theories

-emphasized role of peripheral/local receptors in the monitoring of physical states

-ex. empty stomach cues hunger

-shifted to central receptors in the brain to monitor conditions that might trigger motivational states

-ex. blood glucose

Textbook: The Activation of Motivation Current Theories

looks at interaction of both peripheral and central receptor sites

Textbook: Homeostasis

most common purpose for motivation is argued to be homeostasis

Textbook: Hedonism

-oldest explanation for motivation

-assumes we are motivated by pleasure & pain

-does not provide explanation for self-painful behaviors

Textbook: Growth Motivation

-humans are motivated to reach full-potential

-humans need to have effect/control on our environment → effectance motivation/personal causation

Textbook: Motivation is a Complex Blend of:

philosophical & physiological concepts

Textbook: Aristotle’s Philosophy

-argued that soul is free will and mind at birth is a blank slate

-all behavior is a result of conditions that precede the behavior (antecedent variables)

-most behaviors are learned (nurture)

Textbook: Descartes Philosophy

-dualism: human behavior is partly result of free/rational soul, and partly automatic/non-rational processes of the body

-animals have no soul, automatons (mechanical beings)

Textbook: Locke’s Philosophy

-ideas are elementary units of the mind that come from nurture

-1st source of ideas is conversion of sensation → perception

-2nd source of ideas is reflection

-functional autonomy

Textbook: Physiological - Hypothalamus

related to changes in motivational states

Textbook: Physiological - Nerves

separate sensory & motor nerves

Textbook: Machine Metaphor

brain is a mechanical system

Textbook: Godlike Metaphor

behavior should be based on qualities associated with God

Textbook: Most fundamental motive for all living organisms is?

reproduction

Approach → Avoidance Conflict

root of many emotional disorders/problems

Regulatory Approach

responds to disruptive internal states by restoring internal equilibrium

Arousal

tied to reticular formation/reticular activating system (RAS)

-relies on sensory input

When reticular formation is more active we are?

more wakeful

Are Arousal and Attention the Same?

no

Attention is:

selective

Visuals and Moods

people in a good mood tend to remember all around visuals while people in a bad mood focus on the center (leaving out peripherals)

Curiosity and Complexity

low complexity initially preferred for simplicity → we begin to prefer higher complexity because we do not like to be bored

Humor is related to:

arousal & surprise

Temperament (long-lasting)

stable tendencies

ex. introversion/extraversion

Moods (medium lasting)

enduring affective experience

Emotion (shortest lasting)

shorter than moods but more intense

Pavlov’s Findings:

-neutral stimulus → positive/negative stimulus (pavlovian conditioning)