DEP 2004: Life Cycle Exam 2 Review

endocrine glands

secrete hormones into the bloodstream

pituitary gland

“master gland” located in the brain; triggers hormone release from all other endocrine glands; produces growth hormone

the three principles of growth

cephalocaidal, proximodistal, and orthogenic

neurons

cells that transmit signals in the nervous system, enabling communication between the brain and the body.

dendrites

receives signals from other neurons

axon

transmits signals away from the neuron to other cells.

synapse

the gap between neurons

neurotransmitters

chemicals that travel across the synapse received by a neighboring neuron

myelination

neurons encased in a protective substance

why myelination is important

it increases the speed and efficiency of electrical signals along neurons, allowing for faster communication within the nervous system.

synaptogenesis

development of new connections between neurons

synaptic pruning

removal of unnecessary synapses

plasticity

brain is adaptable and responds to individual experiences

reflex

unlearned and involuntary response to stimulus

survival reflexes

clearly useful for survival

primitive reflexes

not clearly useful for survival, disappears in early infancy

babinski reflex

grasping

moro reflex

a startle reflex seen in infants, characterized by sudden extension of the arms and legs in response to a loud noise or perceived loss of support.

brain lateralization

asymmetry and specialization of brain hemispheres’ function

primary stress appraisal

catogorizing the event

secondary stress appraisal

evaluation the event - “what can I do?”

reappraisal

changes in situation may change your appraisal

stress

physiological and psychological response to an event

how the brain changes - adolescents

changes in gray + white matter inc., risk taking behaviors inc., and dopamine inc.

how the brain changes - adults

brain dev. cont., neurogenesis, degeneration w/ age, and 5-30% fewer neurons

(Piaget) cognitive development

consists of the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations

sensorimotor (birth - 2 years)

infants use their senses and motor actions to explore and understand the world. at the start, they only have innate reflexes, but they develop “intelligent” actions. by the end, they are capable of symbolic thought using images or words and can therefore plan solutions to problems mentally.

a-not-b-error

tendency of 8-12 month-olds to search for an
object in the place (A) they last found it, rather than in its new
hiding place (B)

preopertional (2 - 7 years)

preschoolers use their capacity for symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play, and solve problems. but their thinking is not yet logical; they are egocentric and are easily fooled by perceptions, failing conservation problems bacause they cannot rely on logical operations

perceptual salience

most obvious feature of an object/situation

centration

center attention on a single aspect of the problem
• Focus only on glass height

decentration

focus on 2+ dimensions of a problem at once
• Focus on both height and width

concrete operations (7 - 11 years)

school-age children acquire concrete logical operations that allow them to mentally classify, add, and otherwise act on concrete objects in their heads. they can solve practical, real-world problems through a trial-and-error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems

formal operations (11 - 12 years and older)

adolecents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical possibilities. with age and experience, they can trace the long-range consequences of possible actions, and they can form hypotheses and systematically test them using the scientific method

decontextualize

separate prior knowledge and beliefs from
the demands of the task at hand

adolescent egocentrism

difficulty differentiating one’s own
thoughts and feelings from those of other people

cognitive aging

Changes in the structure and function of the brain related to
getting older
• Varies from person to person
• Others will experience severe deterioration in cognition

neurocognitive changes that come with age

Processing speed

Memory
• Minor complaints become common

Executive functioning
• Some declines, reasoning about familiar topics
and facts stay the same

Language
• Overall ability stays the same

dementia

group of diseases characterized by declines in memory or other
cognitive skills; affects 50 million people worldwide

Must have impairment in two or more of the following:
• Memory
• Communication and language
• Ability to focus and pay attention
• Reasoning and judgment
• Visual perception

alzheimer’s disease

type of dementia causing problems with memory, thinking,
and behavior
• Accounts for 60-80% of all dementia cases
• Progressive and fatal – symptoms gradually worsen over time
and eventually lead to death
• Risk factors

Information processing model

Computer metaphor to explain how people process stimuli; info enters the “system”, is transformed, coded, and stored, and can be retrieved later

memory

ability to store and later retrieve information
about past events
• Develops and changes over the lifespan

the memory process

encoding, storage, and retrieval

encoding

getting info into memory

storage

info is represented and kept in memory

retrieval

pulling info out of memory

sensory register/memory

registers incoming info; brief, almost identical representation of the stimuli

working memory

Holding and using information in mind to...
• Solve problems, make decisions, learn new
information, etc
• Relatively small capacity; must keep
information active to remember it

Implicit memory (procedural memory)

Unconscious, unintentional retrieval of information
• Things we can do without thinking about them

Explicit memory (declarative memory)

Conscious, intentional retrieval of information
• Learned at a specific point in time

Long term memory

Ability to remember extensive information from a few seconds,
hours, or decades ago
• Relatively large capacity
• Easier to recall frequently accessed memories
• More details and clarity for important events

Semantic memory

Learning and remembering words, concepts,
and facts

Episodic memory

• Conscious recollection of information from a
specific event or point in time
• Personal memories

consolidation

organizing information for long-term storage

recognition

recognizing the correct item among incorrect ones

Recall

“pure recall” with no hints; most difficult type of retrieva

Cued recall

hints or clues to help you remember

False memory

remembering events that did not happen
• Fill in gaps with reasonable events
• Emotional events either very accurate or highly inaccurate

Hippocampus

Main memory structure, responsible for formation and
consolidation of explicit memories

Amygdala

emotional memories

Basal ganglia and cerebellum

procedural memory

Deferred imitation

imitate a novel act after a delay
by 6 months; an early form of explicit/declarative memory

Rehearsal – (ages 5-7)

Repeating words/items to remember

Organization – (ages 9-10)

Chunking, looking for patterns

Elaboration – (ages 10+)

Creating meaningful links between items

Metamemory

knowledge of memory

Metacognition

knowledge the human mind

Autobiographical memory

Episodic memories of personal events
• Important for understanding self

Childhood amnesia

few autobiographical memories from first
years of life

scripts

Typical sequence of actions, guide future behavior
• More detailed as children get older
• Affect how they form new memories
and recall past events
• Reconstruct memories to fit script

eyewitness memory

Reporting events witnessed or experienced
• Accurate for general events, general questions
• Accuracy decreases with specific or leading questions and
repeated questioning

What makes some memories last forever

• Personal significance
• Distinctiveness
• Emotional intensity
• Life phase

Reminiscence bump

more memories from ages 15-25

What Makes Development Abnormal?

statistical deviance, maladaptiveness, personal distress

DSM-5

lists defining symptoms of psychological disorders

Developmental psychopathology

The study of the origins and course of maladaptive behavior

• Evaluate atypical development in relation to typical

development

• How do disorders arise?

• How does their expression change as the individual

develops?

Developmental pathways model

• Similar starting points

• Different paths different outcomes

• Change is possible at many points

Diathesis

a vulnerability or predisposition to developing a disorder

Diathesis-stress model

a diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Symptoms

Social and communication deficits

• Difficulty with social cues and social interactions

• Restricted interests and repetitive behavior

• Seek sameness, can become obsessed with particular

objects and interests

(Suspected) Causes of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

Genes strongly implicated - concordance rate 60-70%

• Increasing age of parents, especially fathers

• Early environmental factors, pregnancy complications

Can Infants have Depression?

Infants can experience depressive symptoms

• Tearfulness, irritability, lack of joy

Infants most at risk for depression

Abused or neglected

• Separated from important attachment figure

• Depressed parent

ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

ADHD symptoms (IN CHILDREN)

• Inattention, overactive and impulsive behavior, or both

• Inattention

• Easily distracted, misses details, forgetful

• Hyperactivity and impulsivity

• Restless, fidgety, and difficulty in taking turns

What gender is more likely to have ADHD?

Male(s)

ADHD causes

Differences in brain chemistry

• Genes account for 60-90% of variation

• ~100 gene variants affecting neurotransmitters

Depression

A prolonged feeling of helplessness, hopelessness, and sadness

anorexia nervosa

"nervous loss of appetite"; an eating disorder in which an irrational fear of weight gain leads people to starve themselves

Anorexia Nervosa (AN) is more common with ___________

Females

Bulimia Nervosa (BN)

recurrent binge-purge patterns

Binge Eating Disorder (BED)

binging without the purging

out of all of the eating disorders discussed, ___ is the most treatment-resistant and the deadliest

anorexia

causes of eating disorders

• Genes (~50% variation in risk)

• Predispose people to eating disorders

• Biochemical abnormalities

• Low levels of serotonin, dopamine

When does substance abuse become a problem?

Person continues to use substances, despite adverse

consequences

• Dangerous situations, interferes with work/school, and interpersonal relationships

White men 65+ are _______ likely to commit suicide

Most

women, esp. African American and Hispanic are _______ likely to commit suicide

Least

dysthymic disorder (DD)

less severe but chronic form of depression

• Diagnosis requires 2-year history of depressed mood

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

people with good mental health

experience depressive symptoms during winter

• Ranges from 1.4% in FL to 10% in Alaska

• Light therapy