Study Guide: Cardiovascular, Immune, Respiratory Systems & More

Function of blood

Blood is the vehicle for long distance mass transport, from one part of the body to another.

Functions of plasma proteins

Blood clotting, defense of foreign invaders, carriers of steroid hormones, cholesterol, drugs, and certain ions as a Fe2+, and some act as hormones or extracellular enzymes.

Eosinophils

Type of cells that increases during parasitic infections.

Neutrophils and monocytes

Types of cells that increase during bacterial infections.

Lymphocytes

Type of cells that increases during viral infections.

Leukemia

Abnormal growth and development of WBCs.

Thrombocytopenia

Condition characterized by less platelets.

Anemia

Condition characterized by not enough RBCs.

Neutropenia

Condition characterized by few WBCs.

Thrombopoiesis

The growth and maturation of megakaryocytes (the parent cell of platelets).

Leukopoiesis

Production and development of leukocytes.

Erythropoiesis

Regulate erythrocyte production.

Cytokines

Peptides or proteins released from one cell that affect the growth or activity of another.

Erythropoietin

Cytokine produced in kidney cells primarily that affects RBCs.

Thrombopoietin

Cytokine produced in liver primarily that affects megakaryocytes.

Colony-stimulated factors, interleukins, stem cell factor

Cytokines that mobilize hematopoietic stem cells and affect all types of blood cells.

Hemostasis

The process of keeping blood within a damaged blood vessel.

Coagulation

The process that seals the hole until tissues are repaired.

Intrinsic pathway of coagulation

Initiated by damage to tissue exposing collagen.

Extrinsic pathway of coagulation

Initiated by damage to tissue exposing tissue factor III (tissue thromboplastin).

Fibrinolysis

The breakdown of blood clots (a fibrin clot).

Thrombin

Activates fibrinogen and fibrin (factor I) and forms insoluble fibers that stabilize the platelet plug.

Vitamin K

Needed for synthesis of factors II, VII, IX, X.

vWF (Von Willebrand Factor)

Regulates level of factor VIII; a deficiency or defect can cause prolonged bleeding.

Fibrinogen and Fibrin (factor I)

Form insoluble fibers that stabilize the platelet plug.

Calcium ions in coagulation cascade

Ca2+ is required for several steps of the coagulation cascade, and it is never a limiting factor.

Functions of heparin

Works with antithrombin III to block factors IX, X, XI, XII.

Functions of prostacyclin

Eicosanoid that blocks platelets adhesion (normal endothelial cells).

Functions of NO

Mechanism involved in limiting the extent of blood clotting within vessels.

Functions of RBCs

Facilitate oxygen transport from the lungs to cells and carbon dioxide from the cells to lungs.

Functions of platelets

Help blood clot and stop bleeding.

Causes of hemophilia

Anticoagulants used in blood samples do not contain calcium (factor VIII deficiency in clotting).

Immunity

The body's ability to protect itself against infectious disease.

Neutrophils

Help protect the body from infections by killing bacteria, fungi, and foreign debris.

Lymphocytes

Consist of T cells, natural killer cells, and B cells to protect viral infections and produce antibodies.

Monocytes

Part of the immune response and help inflammation.

Basophils

Involved in inflammation and immune response.

Eosinophils

Part of the immune response and help in inflammation.

Mast cells

Involved in inflammation and immune response.

Components of the immune system

Lymphoid tissue and various types of immune cells (chemical signals that coordinate responses).

Functions of the spleen

Ingest old, abnormal RBCs and break down Hb (iron) Aa, bilirubin - Secondary lymphoid tissue.

Functions of lymph nodes

Kill foreign invaders and remove abnormal/damaged cells.

Functions of thymus

Produces T lymphocytes and peptides (thymosin, thymopoietin, and thymulin) - Primary lymphoid tissue.

Two lines of defense in the body

1. Physical chemical and mechanical barriers 2. Internal immune response.

Antigens

Substances that trigger an immune response.

Antibodies

Help the immune system recognize and destroy specific antigens (also neutralizes harmful pathogens).

Innate Immunity

Responds to a range of signals, present from birth, immediate response.

Acquired Immunity

Attacks a specific pathogen or antigen, slower but stronger response, cell-mediated (cell contact - cytotoxic lymphocytes) & humoral immunity (antibodies).

Allergies

An inflammatory response to a nonpathogenic antigen (called allergen).

Responses of the immune system against allergens

Regulatory T cells suppress other lymphocytes and prevent excessive immune responses.

Functions of T lymphocytes

Develop either into cells, regulate other immune cells (helper T cells), attack and destroy virus infected cells (cytotoxic cells).

Functions of B lymphocytes

Become plasma cells that secrete antibodies.

Functions of different antibodies (immunoglobulins Ig) in acquired immunity

IgG: Give infants immunity; IgA: External secretions, bind to pathogen and flag them for phagocytosis; IgEs: Target gut parasites and are associated with allergic reactions; IgM: React to red blood antigens; IgD: Surface of B lymphocytes.

Autoimmune disease

An incorrect immune response (e.g. T1D).

Function of the membrane attack complex

Eliminate pathogenic cells by cytolysis, penetrate cell membranes of microbes to form cytotoxic pores.

Cytokine

A protein that functions as a chemical messenger in the immune system.

Types of cytokines produced in response to viral infections

Interleukins: IL-1 is secreted by macrophages, and it modulates the immune response.

PRRs and PAMPs

PRRs (pattern recognition receptors) are receptors in leukocytes; PAMPs (pathogen-associated molecular pattern) are molecules in surface cells of pathogens.

Functions of antibodies or immunoglobulins

Ig’s

Functions of interferons

Respond to viral infections, tumors, and other immune threats.

Functions of Major Histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins

Help our immune system defend against intracellular pathogens and cancers.

Functions of helper T cells (TH)

Not provided in the notes.

Functions of cytotoxic T cells (TC)

Not provided in the notes.

Inflammation

A hallmark reaction of innate immunity that attracts other cells, increases capillary permeability, and causes fever.

Primary immune response

Occurs after the initial exposure to an invader, characterized by slower and lower magnitude antibody production.

Secondary immune response

Occurs upon subsequent exposure to the same antigen, characterized by quicker and larger antibody production.

Functions of the respiratory system

1. Exchanging gases between the atmosphere and the blood 2. Homeostatic regulation of body pH 3. Protection from inhaled pathogens 4. Vocalization.

Mucociliary escalator

Filtration of air and movement of mucus towards the pharynx.

Tidal Volume (TV)

Volume of air that moves during a respiratory cycle.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

Volume you inspire above the tidal volume.

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

The amount of air forcefully exhaled after the end of a normal respiration.

Residual Volume (RV)

Volume of air in the respiratory system after maximal exhalation (it cannot be measured directly).

Lung capacities

The sum of two or more lung volumes.

Vital Capacity (VC)

Maximum amount of air that can be voluntarily moved into or out of the respiratory system with one breath (VC = IRV + ERV + TV).

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)

Vital capacity (VC) + residual volume (RV).

Inspiratory Capacity

TV + IRV.

Functional Residual Capacity

ERV + RV.

Function of ventilation

Our respiratory system produces a pressure gradient, produced by changes in the volume of the chest cavity.

Type I alveolar cells

Exchange gases CO2 and O2, produce surface tension which creates resistance to stretch.

Type II alveolar cells

Produce surfactant molecules that disrupt cohesive forces between water molecules on the alveolar surface.

Glomus cells in respiration

Release neurotransmitter when PO2 decreases.

Compliance

The ability of the lung to stretch.

Elastance

The ability of the lung to resist being deformed.

Apnea

Cessation of breathing.

Eupnea

Normal, quiet breathing.

Hyperventilation

Increased respiratory rate and/or volume without increased metabolism.

Hypoventilation

Decreased alveolar ventilation.

Dyspnea

Difficulty breathing, sometimes described as 'air hunger.'

Pneumothorax

Results in a collapsed lung that cannot function normally.

Hypercapnia

Excessive CO2 in the bloodstream.

Hypoxia

Low levels of oxygen in body tissues.

Carbaminohemoglobin

A compound formed when CO2 combines with hemoglobin in the blood.

Oxyhemoglobin

Hemoglobin in which oxygen is bound.

Bohr effect

A phenomenon that explains how hemoglobin binds to oxygen in the lungs and releases it in the tissue due to a shift in the Hb saturation curve from a change of pH.

Total pulmonary ventilation

6 L/min

Total alveolar ventilation

4.2 L/min

Maximum voluntary ventilation

125-170 L/min

Respiration rate

12-20 breaths/min

Alveolar ventilation

Ventilation rate x (tidal volume - dead space volume)

Emphysema

Destruction of alveoli means less surface area for gas exchange