WHAP Chapter 6: Commonalities and Variations: Africa, the Americas, and Pacific Oceania

What percentage of the world's population was located in Eurasia at the beginning of the Common Era?

Over 85 percent.

What were some key differences between civilizations in the Americas and those in Eurasia?

The Americas lacked suitable animals for domestication, had less developed metallurgy, and limited writing primarily to Mesoamerica.

What was unique about writing in Africa compared to the Americas and Eurasia?

In Africa, writing was confined to the north and northeast, while in the Americas, it was limited to Mesoamerica.

How did the number and size of classical civilizations compare between the Americas, Africa, and Eurasia?

There were fewer and smaller classical civilizations in the Americas and Africa than in Eurasia.

What characterized the interaction between Africa and Eurasia compared to the Americas and Pacific Oceania?

Africa frequently interacted with Eurasia, whereas the Americas and Pacific Oceania were completely cut off from both.

What environmental factors contributed to Africa's diverse cultures?

Great environmental variation, enormous size, and being the most tropical of the world's supercontinents.

What was the significance of Meroë in the context of Nubian civilization?

Meroë was a focal point of Nubian civilization after the decline of Egypt, ruled by a sacred monarch.

What economic activities characterized rural areas around Meroë?

A combination of herding and farming, with tribute paid to the ruler.

What led to the decline of Meroë after 100 C.E.?

Deforestation due to the iron industry, conquest by Axum, and the penetration of Coptic Christianity and Islam.

What was the role of long-distance trade in Meroë's wealth and power?

It was a major source of wealth and military power, with trade contacts to the Mediterranean and east and west via camel caravans.

What was the impact of climate on agriculture in Africa?

The tropical climate resulted in poorer soils and less productive agriculture.

What was the nature of Nubian civilization in relation to Egyptian civilization?

Nubian civilization was almost as old as Egyptian civilization and maintained distinct cultural identity despite constant interaction.

What characterized the city of Meroë?

It had craft specialization and was less concentrated on the Nile, with a population less directly controlled by the capital.

What was the significance of Axum in the context of African civilizations?

Axum became a Christian kingdom, marking a significant cultural and religious shift in the region.

How did the trade routes affect Meroë's economy?

Trade routes facilitated wealth accumulation and military power through connections with other regions.

What was the primary agricultural method used in Meroë?

Farming based on rainfall rather than irrigation.

What was the significance of the sacred monarch in Meroë?

The sacred monarch held absolute power and sometimes was female, indicating a unique aspect of Nubian governance.

What was the impact of Coptic Christianity on Meroë?

It led to Christian dominance in the region for 1,000 years after the decline of Meroë.

Where was the kingdom of Axum located?

In present-day Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.

What was the economic foundation of Axum?

Highly productive agriculture, particularly plow-based farming.

Which crops were primarily produced in Axum?

Wheat, barley, millet, and teff.

When did a substantial state emerge in Axum?

By about 50 C.E.

What stimulated the economic growth of Axum?

Trade through the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, particularly via the port of Adulis.

What was a major source of state revenue in Axum?

Commerce taxes.

What was the capital city of Axum known for?

Being a center of monumental building and arts patronage.

What significant architectural feature is associated with Axum?

Huge stone obelisks, likely marking royal graves.

What was the town language of Axum?

Ge'ez, written in a south Arabian-derived script.

Which language did most of the rural populace in Axum speak?

Agaw.

When did Christianity arrive in Axum?

In the fourth century C.E.

Who adopted Christianity in Axum around the time of Constantine?

King Ezana.

What is the current religion of half the region that Axum was part of?

Coptic Christianity.

What territories did Axum expand into between the fourth and sixth centuries C.E.?

Meroë and Yemen.

What significant geographical location did Axum reach by 571 C.E.?

The gates of Mecca.

What characterized the urbanization along the Niger River between 300 B.C.E. and 900 C.E.?

Migration of peoples from the southern Sahara without evidence of a state structure.

What were the major occupations in the cities along the Niger River?

Iron smithing, cotton weaving, pottery, and praise-singing (griots).

What stimulated the middle Niger cities?

A network of West African commerce.

What was a key feature of civilizations in Mesoamerica and the Andes?

A lack of interaction with other major cultures.

What contributed to the cultural diversity in Mesoamerica?

Rugged mountainous terrain leading to a range of microclimates.

What were some of the major achievements of the Maya civilization?

Advanced mathematical systems, elaborate calendars, and a complex writing system.

What characterized the Maya economy?

Intensive agricultural technology and economies based on market exchange.

What large-scale human engineering techniques were used in agriculture?

Swamp drainage, terracing, and water management systems.

What was the political structure of the civilizations in the Americas?

A highly fragmented system of city-states and regional kingdoms.

What were the consequences of frequent warfare in these civilizations?

Capture and sacrifice of prisoners and a lack of unified empires.

What significant environmental event occurred around 840 C.E. that affected the population?

A long-term drought led to a rapid collapse of the civilization.

By what percentage did the population drop during the collapse after 840 C.E.?

At least 85 percent.

What factors contributed to the collapse of the civilization after 600 C.E.?

Rapid population growth outstripping resources, political disunity, increased warfare, and rulers demanding more labor and tribute.

When was Teotihuacán founded?

Around 150 B.C.E.

What was the population of Teotihuacán by 550 C.E.?

125,000 to 150,000.

What was significant about Teotihuacán in terms of urban development?

It was the largest urban complex in the Americas and one of the six largest in the world at the time.

How was the city of Teotihuacán designed?

It was centrally planned on a gridlike pattern.

What type of evidence is there regarding rulers in Teotihuacán?

Little evidence of rulers or a tradition of public inscriptions.

What was the influence of Teotihuacán on Mesoamerica?

It directly administered about 10,000 square miles and influenced art, architecture, and military reach into Maya lands.

What does the name Teotihuacán mean?

City of the gods.

What civilization is most well-known in the Andes region?

The Incas.

What was the time frame during which civilizations rose and fell in the central Peruvian coast?

From 1000 B.C.E. to 1000 C.E.

What was Chavín de Huántar known for?

It became the focus of a Pan-Andean religious movement around 900 B.C.E.

What type of environment did the civilizations of the Andes thrive in?

A rich marine environment with an endless supply of seabirds and fish.

What characterized the Moche civilization?

It flourished between 100 and 800 C.E. with agriculture based on complex irrigation and fishing, ruled by warrior-priests.

What led to the ecological disruption of the Moche civilization?

Environmental changes in the sixth century C.E.

What were the Wari and Tiwanaku empires known for?

Flourishing between 400 and 1000 C.E. with large urban capitals and monumental architecture.

What were the social structures like in Wari and Tiwanaku empires?

Stratified populations in the tens of thousands.

Did the Chavín civilization become an empire?

No, it did not become an empire.

What was a common ritual practice among the Moche rulers?

Human sacrifice and elaborate burials.

What were the primary agricultural systems used by the Wari and Tiwanaku civilizations?

Wari used terraced agriculture, while Tiwanaku utilized raised field systems.

What suggests tighter political control in Wari cities?

The cities were built to a common plan and linked by highways.

What was a notable characteristic of the relationship between Wari and Tiwanaku?

There was little overt conflict or warfare between them.

Around what year did both the Wari and Tiwanaku civilizations collapse?

Around 1000 C.E.

What significant cultural influence did the capital city of the Wari have?

It served as a cultural and religious center, influencing areas beyond the state.

What was the movement of Bantu-speaking peoples in Africa characterized by?

It began around 3000 B.C.E. from southeastern Nigeria and the Cameroons and was not a conquest or self-conscious migration.

How many distinct Bantu languages developed over time?

Over 400 distinct Bantu languages.

What were some advantages that Bantu agriculturalists had over gathering and hunting peoples?

They had larger numbers due to agriculture, introduced new diseases, and utilized iron.

What was the impact of Bantu expansion on gathering and hunting peoples?

They were largely displaced, absorbed, or eliminated.

What cultural elements did Bantu peoples spread through eastern and southern Africa?

Ancestor worship, belief in evil as a consequence of individual malice, drums as key instruments, and women's roles as agricultural workers.

What characterized the decision-making structures in Kenya among Bantu communities?

Decision-making was based on kinship and age structures.

What type of societies developed in the Zimbabwe and Lake Victoria region?

Larger kingdoms.

What was the nature of religion among Bantu peoples?

It emphasized ancestral or nature spirits rather than a remote high god.

What practices were associated with Bantu religious beliefs?

Sacrifices to access the power of dead ancestors, belief in witches, and the role of diviners.

What was the belief regarding the power of charms in Bantu culture?

The power of charms was activated by proper rituals.

What was the significance of the concept of 'continuous revelation' in Bantu religion?

It indicated that new messages still come from the world beyond.

What was the status of women in many Bantu communities compared to urban civilizations?

Many Bantu communities were less patriarchal.

What type of societies emerged on the East African coast after 1000 C.E.?

Rival city-states.

What was the role of the Batwa (Pygmy) people in relation to Bantu agriculturalists?

They became 'forest specialists' and interacted with the Bantu.

What were some cultural changes experienced by Bantu peoples due to interactions with different groups?

They adopted new crops and animals in East Africa.

What was a common feature of the societies created by Bantu peoples between 500-1500 C.E.?

The creation of many distinct societies and cultures.

What was the primary mode of cultural transmission among Bantu-speaking peoples?

They spread their skills and culture, shaping parts of the common culture of Bantu-speaking Africa.

What regions were home to village-based societies in North America?

Eastern woodlands, Central America, Caribbean islands, and the Amazon basin.

What architectural features are associated with the Ancestral Pueblo?

Pit houses and great houses.

When did maize cultivation begin in southwestern North America?

In the second millennium B.C.E.

What were kivas in the context of Ancestral Pueblo societies?

Larger ceremonial structures found in many villages by 900 C.E.

What was the significance of Chaco Canyon in Ancestral Pueblo culture?

It was a center for turquoise production and featured large settlements known as pueblos.

What was Pueblo Bonito?

The largest 'great house' in Chaco Canyon, five stories high with over 600 rooms.

What happened to the great houses in Chaco Canyon by 1200 C.E.?

They were abandoned.

What was the agricultural revolution in the Mississippi River valley?

It began by 2000 B.C.E. but crops weren't productive enough for fully settled agriculture until later.

What characterized the Hopewell culture?

Large burial mounds, geometric earthworks, and evidence of extensive trade.

What was Cahokia and when did it flourish?

A large settlement near present-day St. Louis, Missouri, that flourished between 900 and 1250 C.E.

What was the central mound of Cahokia?

A terraced pyramid of four levels.

What social structure existed among the Natchez in the sixteenth century?

A chiefdom with paramount chiefs ('Great Suns') living in luxury and a clear social elite.

What environmental impact did human settlement have in New Zealand?

The moa became extinct by 1200 C.E.

What was Pohnpei known for in the Pacific?

It was referred to as the 'Venice of the Pacific' due to its seawalls and canals.

What were the Tu'i Tonga?

Powerful military leaders in the Tonga islands.